fc^***^ 


^  - 


BY  GEORGE  B.  KILBON 


KNIFE  WORK  IN  THE  SCHOOLROOM 

FULLY  ILLUSTRATED   $1.00  NET 


SUPPLIED    BY 


LEE  AND  SHEPARD     BOSTON 


MANUAL  TRAINING 


ELEMENTARY  WOODWORK 


A  SERIES  OF  SIXTEEN  LESSONS  TAUGHT  IN  THE 

SENIOR    GRAMMAR    GRADE    AT 

SPRINGFIELD  MASS. 


AND 


BY 

GEORGE   B.   KILBON 

PRINCIPAL  OF  MANUAL  TRAINING,  SPRINGFIELD,  MASS.,  AND  AUTHOR  OF 
"  KNIFE  WORK  IN  THE  SCHOOLROOM  " 


Jliustrateti 


IO      MILK      STREET 
1893 


COPYRIGHT,  1893,  BY  LEE  AND  SHEPARD 


All  Rights  Reserved 


MANUAL  TRAINING — ELEMENTARY  WOODWORK. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

INTRODUCTION 1 

EQUIPMENT .3 

LESSON 

I.    USE  OF  THE  HAMMER.  —  NAIL-DRIVING 7 

II.    USE  OF  THE  GAUGE 16 

III.  MEASUREMENT 21 

IV.  USE  OF  THE  TRY-SQUARE  AND  THE  BEVEL 26 

V.    EXPLANATION  OF  THE  DIFFERENCE  BETWEEN  SLITTING 

AND   CUTTING-OFF    SAWS 32 

VI.     USE  OF  SAWS 36 

VII.    SURFACE  PLANING 41 

VIII.    EDGE  AND  END  PLANING 47 

IX.      USE   OF   THE   BIT   AND    THE   BRAD-AWL 55 

X.    SHOVE-PLANING 60 

XI.    To  MAKE  A  SQUARE  PRISM  AND  A  CYLINDER    ....  67 

XII.    USE  OF  THE  CHISEL  AND  THE  GOUGE 70 

XIII.  USE  OF  THE  HAND-SCREW  AND  THE  SCREW-DRIVER     .  75 

XIV.  To  MAKE  A  PAIR  OF  SCALES 80 

XV.     To  MAKE  A  BEVELLED  Box  OR  CARD-RECEIVER    ...  85 

XVI.    GRINDING-TOOLS                                                                     ,  91 


in 


2O6G113 


INTRODUCTION. 


THE  title  given  to  this  book  was  chosen  because  of  the 
purpose  to  present  fundamental  exercises  in  a  simple  form 
for  the  use  of  beginners.  Effort  has  been  made  to  detail 
operations  minutely,  hoping  to  be  of  service  to  novices, 
though  well  aware  that  no  book  can  be  a  substitute  for  an 
efficient  instructor.  The  arrangement  is  from  the  easy  to  the 
difficult  by  successive  steps,  and  is  designed  to  give  boys  of 
twelve  years  and  upward  primary  command  of  the  use  of  a 
set  comprising  the  principal  wood-working  tools.  The  smaller 
planes  and  saws  are  chiefly  used.  Other  tools  are  of  standard 
size.  Small  pieces  of  wood  are  used,  since  elementary  instruc- 
tion can  be  better  given  thereby.  The  different  kinds  of  nail- 
driving,  and  the  use  of  gauge  and  try-square,  are  first  taught 
on  boards  prepared  by  machinery.  The '  ability  to  use  each 
tool  should  be  mastered  before  undertaking  the  study  of 
another. 

The  lessons  described  have  been  given  to  the  ninth,  or 
senior,  grammar  grade  of  the  public  schools  at  Springfield, 
Mass.,  since  the  organization  of  the  manual  training-school  at 
that  place  in  1886,  classes  of  twelve  to  nineteen  receiving  one 
lesson  per  week  of  one  and  one-half  hours'  duration,  and  com- 
mencing with  September,  1892,  the  first  half  of  them  are  now 
given  to  the  eighth  grade,  classes  receiving  one  lesson  each 
fortnight.  A  selection  under  the  title  "Ten  Lessons  in 

l 


2  INTRODUCTION. 

Manual  Training "  was  published  in  The  New  York  School 
Journal  between  Sept.  26,  1891,  and  Aug.  26,  1892. 

The  sixth  and  seventh  grades  at  Springfield  receive  manual 
instruction  through  the  medium  of  knife-work  outlined  in  a 
book  published  by  The  Milton  Bradley  Co.,  entitled  "  Knife 
"Work  in  the  School  Eoom  ; "  the  eighth  and  ninth  grades, 
through  the  medium  of  the  within  described  elementary 
course ;  and  high  school  pupils  who  so  elect  receive  daily 
lessons  for  three  years  in  joinery,  wood-turning,  carving, 
pattern-making,  moulding,  forging,  iron-filing,  turning  and 
planing,  and  machine  construction. 

The  question  is  under  advisement  of  writing  out  a  descrip- 
tion of  high-school  work  following  the  method  pursued  in 
"  Knife  Work  "'  and  in  this  book.  Whether  it  will  be  done 
will  depend  somewhat  on  the  acceptance  of  these  two  volumes. 

Mechanical  drawing  is  given  to  pupils  in  the  eighth  and 
ninth  grades  in  the  ordinary  schoolroom,  using  the  9  in.  X  12 
in.  industrial  drawing  kit  made  by  the  Milton  Bradley  Co. ; 
and  among  other  things  drawn  are  the  manual  problems. 
High-school  pupils  have  an  extended  course  of  daily  work  in 
drawing,  their  manual  problems  being  included. 


EQUIPMENT. 


Fig.  1  is  a  front  elevation ;  Fig.  2,  a  plan ;  Figs.  3  and  4, 
left  and  right  elevations,  of  an  individual  work  bench,  4£  ft. 
long  X  2  ft.  wide  X  34  in.  high.  The  two  end  views  show 


Fig.  1. 

tools  hanging  in  position.  Other  tools  are  kept,  some  on  the 
bench  top,  some  in  the  rack  on  the  back  side  of  the  bench, 
and  others  in  the  drawer. 

To  accommodate  boys  of  small  stature,  movable  platforms 
4^  ft.  long  X  2  ft.  wide  are  used,  varying  in  height  from  2  in. 
to  5  in.  When  not  needed,  these  platforms  are  buttoned  to 
the  back  side  of  the  bench.  When  the  arm  of  a  pupil  hangs 

3 


ELEMENT AE  T  WOOD  WORK. 


naturally  by  the  side,  and  the  wrist  is  bent  so  as  to  cause  the 
hand  to  stand  at  right  angles  to  the  body,  the  hand  so  held 


O    O    O    O    o   o 


a  it- 


should  pass  just  underneath  the  2  in.  plank  forming  the  top 
of  the  bench.  This  rule  will  decide  the  height  of  platform 
needed  for  any  pupil. 


Fig.  3. 


Fig.  4. 


A  school  may  be  furnished  with  twelve  to  twenty-five  such 
benches,  according  to  room  or  demand.  If  twenty-five  are 
furnished,  and  if  room  allows,  a  convenient  arrangement  of 
them  is  shown  in  Fig.  5,  each  bench  being  supplied  with  a 
stool  which  the  pupil  occupies  when  necessary,  and  which 


EQUIPMENT.  5 

are  gathered  around  the  teacher's  desk  during  class  instruc- 
tion as  in  Fig.  5. 

cn 

o         o         o         o 

~o~~    ~o~    ~o~       6         o 


cm 

o          o         o          o          o 


cu  

O  -O     •        O  O  O 

CD    CD    CD    CD 

O  OnOO0O  O 

o0V°o°o 


o 

Fig.  5. 


LIST    OF    TOOLS   WITH   WHICH    EACH    BENCH    IS    SUPPLIED,  WITH 
THEIR    LOCATION    ABOUT    THE    BENCH. 

On  the  Bench  Top. 

*• 

8  in.  Bailey  Iron  smooth-plane.  Q  in.  Bailey  Iron  block- 
plane.  Straight  edge  16  in.  X  2  in.  X  3-16  in.  Box  6  in.  X 
3  in.  X  1  in-  with  four  spaces  for  holding  nails.  Oil-stone. 
Oil-can.  •  Anvil  3  in.  diam.  X  1  in.  high.  8  in.  wooden  smooth- 
plane.  Shove-plane  board. 

In  the  Rack. 

Brad-awl.  6  in.  dividers  adjustable  for  pencil.  5£  in. 
pliers.  Gauge.  3  in.  screw-driver.  Four  firmer  chisels  1  in., 
%  in.,  i  in.,  and  £  in.  Knife  with  two  blades. 


o  ELEMENTARY  WOODWORK. 

On  the  Right  End. 

18  in.  cutting-off  saw.  18  in.  slitting-saw.  10  in.  back-saw. 
Saw-block,  for  use  on  bench  top.  Dust  brush  for  use  on  bench 
top.  Whisk  broom  for  clothing.  Rule  12  in.  long  in  one  un- 
broken piece.  Saw  shelf,  hinged  to  let  down  when  not  in  use. 


Fig.  6. 

On  the  Left  End. 

Claw-hammer  for  driving  and  drawing  nails.  Small  peen 
hammer  for  brads.  Try-square,  4  in.  blade.  Bevel,  6  in. 
blade.  Bit-brace. 

In  the  Drawer. 

In  a  till  with  partitions  to  separate  them,  one  %  in.  gouge, 
inside  ground,  one  £  in.  gouge,  outside  ground.  Three  auger 
bits,  J  in.,  |  in.,  and  £  in.  Two  drill-bits,  7-32  in.,  and  5-32 
in.  Countersink.  Lead-pencil.  Eraser.  Nail  set.  Brad  set. 


USE  OF  HAMMER.  — NAIL-DRIVING.  7 

Under  the  till  a  mallet,  and  space  where  all  of  the  tools  can 
be  packed  when  necessary. 

Under  the  Bench. 

10  in.  hand-clamp.  Dust  pan  and  broom  for  floor-sweeping. 
Half-bushel  basket  to  hold  shavings. 

An  addition  to  the  foregoing  equipment  of  a  half-dozen 
framing-squares  and  22  in.  Bailey  Iron  jointers,  and  two  26 
in.  hand-saws  will  be  very  serviceable. 

Make  as  many  drawers  21  in.  X  10  in.  X  7£  in.  inside 
measurement  as  there  are  to  be  pupils.  Fig.  6  is  a  per- 
spective view  of  a  cupboard  containing  32  such  drawers. 


LESSON  I.     . 

USE   OF    HAMMER. — NAIL-DRIVING. 

The  hammer  consists  of  two  parts,  the  head  and  the  handle. 
CLAW 


BALL- 


Fig.  7. 


The  head  has  three  divisions.  First,  the  ball,  which  is 
the  end  that  strikes  a  blow.  Second,  the  eye,  or  the  hole 
which  receives  the  handle ;  and  third,  the  claw  of  the  nail- 
hammer,  or  peen  of  the  brad-hammer. 


8 


ELEMENT  A  RT  WOOD  WORK. 


Problem  J.  Driving  Steel-  Wire  Nails. — Take  for  each  pupil 
a  block  of  pine  or  other  soft  wood,  8  in.  X  1&  in.  X  1|  in. 
On  one  side  draw  three  pencil  lines,  as  in  Fig.  8,  and  place 


points  1  in.  apart  on  each  line.    Supply  each  pupil  with  1£ 
dozen  6d.  steel-wire  nails. 

Hold  the  hand  as  in  Fig.  9,  with  the  thumb  on  the  upper 


Fig.  9. 


side  of  the  handle,  or  as  in  Fig.  10,  with  the  hand  turned  so 
as  to  bring  the  thumb  partially  to  one  side.     Fig.  9  is  the 


Fig.  10.' 


scientific  position,  as  the  thumb  is  the  stronger  digit,  while 
Fig.  10  is  more  convenient  in  practice.  The  forefinger  should 
not  rest  on  the  top  of  the  handle,  as  many  amateurs  are 


USE  OF  HAMMER.  — NAIL-DRIVING. 


9 


tempted  to  do.     The  end  of  the  handle  should  project  about 
an  inch  beyond  the  hand. 

At  each  of  the  extreme  points  on  one  of  the  lines  in  Fig.  8 
hold  a  nail  vertical  and  strike  it  once.  If  the  blow  has  caused 
it  to  incline,  push  it  back  a  little  past  a  vertical  position,  and, 
holding  it  there,  strike  it  again.  If  it  continues  to  incline,  it 
must  be  loosened  in  order  to  press  it  to  a  vertical  position. 
Drive  each  nail  until  only  £  in.  of  it  projects  above  the  block, 
as  in  Fig.  11.  At  each  of  the  intervening  points  on  the 
same  line  drive  nails,  sighting  with  the  eye  to  see  that  the 
heads  are  all  in  line,  as  in  Fig.  12. 


M  1  l  1  I 


Fig.  11. 


Fig.  12. 


Kapid  workmen  may  drive  a  second  row.  If  it  is  deemed 
desirable  to  mark  the  work,  mark  10  off  from  100,  for  every 
nail  which  inclines  |  in.  from  perpendicular,  or  whose  head 
is  ^g-  in.  above  or  below  the  line  of  f  in.  in  height. 

Problem  II.  Drawing  Steel- Wire  Nails. — Place  the  work 
in  the  vise,  with  its  top  level  with  the  bench  top,  as  in 
Fig.  13. 

Supply  each  pupil  with  a  fulcrum  block  8  in.  X  1|  in.  X  & 
in.  Hold  the  hammer  as  in  Fig.  13,  supporting  its  eye  on  the 
thickness  of  the  fulcrum  block,  and  draw  the  nail  about  f  of 
an  inch,  moving  the  hand  through  about  £  of  a  circle  ;  that  is, 
to  a  vertical  position,  as  in  Fig.  14. 

Support  the  eye  on  the  width  of  the  block,  as  in  Fig.  15,  and 
draw  the  nail  entirely  from  the  wood.  The  eye  of  a  hammer 
should  always  be  supported  thus  when  drawing  nails.  The 
support  should  be  a  little  higher  than  the  nail  head  when  any 


10 


ELEMENTARY   WOODWORK. 


USE  OF  HAMMER.— NAIL-DRIVING.  11 

partial  drawing  commences,  and  each  partial  drawing  should 
be  about  %  in.  to  §  in.  in  amount,  in  order  not  to  bend  the 
nail,  or  strain  the  hammer  handle..  I  have  seen  workmen 
break  hammer  handles  and  nails  resist  drawing  when  neither 
would  have  occurred  had  the  above  simple  direction  been 
followed.  Mark  10  off  from  100  for  every  bent  nail. 

Problem  III.  Driving  Cut  Nails.  —  Upon  another  side  of 
the  block  used  in  the  two  last  problems,  draw  lines  as  before 
and  drive  6d.  cut  nails.  These  are  wedge-shaped  viewed  from 
one  side,  while  of  uniform  thickness  viewed  from  the  adjacent 
side.  Insert  them  as  in  Pig.  16,  in  order  that  they  may  not 
split  the  wood,  which  will  be  the  case  if  they  are  turned  £ 
the  way  around. 

Follow  the  order  given  in  Problem  I.  and  drive  one  row. 
Follow  the  order  given  in  Problem  II.  and  draw  them  without 
bending.  If  any  nails  do  become  inadvertently  or  carelessly 
bent,  straighten  them  on  the  anvil.  Mark  as  in  previous 
problems. 


Fig.  16.  Fig.  17. 

Problem  IV.  Curve-Nailing.  —  Take  the  block  used  in  the 
previous  problems,  draw  a  line  on  one  side  \  in.  from  the  edge, 
and  place  points  at  every  inch  upon  it.  On  an  adjacent  side 
draw  a  line  \  in.  from  the  edge,  as  in  Fig.  17 

Provide  1  in.  No.  18  steel-wire  nails.    Using  the  pliers,  bend 


0 


Fig.  18. 


a  nail  about  |  in.  from  the  point,  as  in  Fig.  18.     Insert  the 
nail  in  one  of  the  prepared  points  on  the  first  side  of  the 


12 


ELEMENTARY   WOODWORK. 


block,  with  its  body  standing  perpendicular,  as  in  Fig.  19, 
where  an  end  view  of  the  block  is  shown. 


Fig.  20. 


Drive  the  nail  carefully,  causing  the  point  to  appear  on  the 
%  in.  line  on  the  adjacent  side  of  the  block,  as  in  Fig.  20.  In 
a  similar  manner  drive  nails  at  the  other  prepared  points, 
which  are  on  the  first  side  of  the  block.  Mark  10  off  from 
100  for  every  nail  whose  point  appears  £  in.  from  the  line  on 
the  adjacent  side. 


Fig.  21. 


Problem  V.     Toe-Nailing.  —  Call  attention  to  the  different 
timbers  of  a  common  house-frame,  as  shown  in  Fig.  21. 


USE   OF  HAMMER.  — NAIL-DRIVING. 


13 


These  timbers  are  largely  fastened  together  by  a  process 
called  toe-nailing. 

Take  a  piece  of  soft  wood  2  in.  X  2  in.  X  i  in-  to  represent 
a  sill,  and  a  piece  2  in.  X  &  in.  X  g  in.  to  represent  a  post  or 
stud.  Lay  the  post  on  the  bench,  and  with  the  peen  hammer 


Fig.  22.  Fig.  23. 

start  a  f  in.  finishing-nail,  or  patent  brad,  £  in.  from  one  end, 
as  in  Fig.  22,  remembering  the  relation  its  wedge -shape  needs 
to  bear  to  the  grain  of  the  wood. 

Press  it  to  an  angle  of  30°  with  the  side  of  the  post,  and 
drive  it  well  in,  but  not  so  as  to  have  the  points  show  on  the 
end.  The  front  view  will  appear  as  in  Fig.  23.  Turn  the  post 
so  as  to  bring  the  bottom  side  uppermost  and 
supporting  it  on  two  blocks,  4  in.  X  ii  in.  X 
in.,  which  are  to  be  used  in  the  next  problem ; 
start  another  nail  in  similar  manner,  as  in  Fig.  24.  '  Fig.  24. 

Hold  the  post  erect  on  the  sill,  and  joining  the  outer  faces 
of  the  two  perfectly,  drive  both  brads  as  far  .as  possible  with- 
out marring  the  wood  with  the  hammer.  Hold  the  left  hand 
firmly  on  the  top  of  the  post  while 
doing  this,  and  do  not  let  perfect  joining 
of  faces  be  disturbed.  With  the  brad 
set  and  hammer  drive  the  brads  till  the 
heads  are  flush  with  the  side  of  the  post ; 
that  is,  till  the  heads  have  fully  entered 
the  wood.  The  work  will  appear  as  in 
Fig.  25.  One  nail-head  only  is  shown 
in  this  figure,  the  other  being  on  the 
invisible  side. 


Fig.  25. 


In  a  similar  manner  start,  drive,  and  set  a  brad  in  each  of 
the  other  sides  of  the  post,  when  it  Avill  be  secured  to  the  sill 
by  four  brads. 


14 


ELEMENTARY   WOODWORK. 


Rapid  workmen  may  perform  two  or  even  three  problems 
while  the  slowest  workmen  are  performing  one.  Mark  10  off 
from  100  on  each  problem  for  every  imperfect  joining  of  faces 
and  for  every  side  of  the  post  that  is  marred  by  the  hammer. 

Problem  V.  Blind  Nailing.  —  Supply  each  pupil  with  two 
pieces  of  soft  wood  4  in.  X  |£  ^n-  X  T%  in-  to  represent  joists, 
one  piece  4  in.  X  2  in.  X  fV  in.  to  hold  them  together  con- 
veniently, and  five  matched  boards,  4  in.  X  I  X  i  in. 


Fig.  20. 


Use  |  patent  brads,  and  nail  the  joists  to  the  board,  as  in 
Fig.  26.     Place  one   matched   board   on  the  joists  with  its 


grooved  edge  agreeing  with  the  end  of  the  joists,  and  drive 
two  brads  near  the  grooved  edge  of  the  board,  securing  it  thus 


Fig.  28. 

to  £ach  joist.     Tig.  27  is  an  end  view  of  the  nailed  board, 
while  at  A  Fig.  31  is  seen  a  perspective  view. 


USE  OF  UA3IMEB.—  NAIL-DRIVING 


15 


Drive  two  nails  obliquely  at  the  base  of  the  tongue  of  the 
board,  as  in  Fig.  28,  setting  them  flush  by  means  of  the  'brad 
set,  thus  further  securing  the  matched  board  to  each  joist. 
These  last  two  nails  are  said  to  be  blinded,  since  the  next 
board  which  is  put  on  blinds  or  hides  them,  as  in  Fig.  29. 


Fig.  29. 


Fig.  30. 


Blind  nail  the  second  board,  and  adding  each  of  the  remain- 
ing boards  blind  nail  them  in  a  similar  manner,  as  in  Fig.  3.0. 
The  completed  work  is  shown  in  perspective  in  Fig.  31. 


Fig.  31. 

No  brad  heads  appear  in  sight  except  the  two  which  were 
perpendicularly  driven  near  the  grooved  edge  of  the  first  laid 
matched  board  and  the  two  with  which  the  last  board  was 
secured.  Rapid  workmen  may  make  two  or  three  problems 
while  the  slowest  ones  are  making  one.  Mark  5  off  from 
100  for  every  open  joint  between  any  two  boards,  and 
for  every  nail  whose  driving  has  caused  the  work  to  be 
marred. 


16 


ELEMENTARY   WOODWORK. 


LESSON  II. 

USE    OF    THE    GAUGE. 


EVERY  board  has  two  sides,  two  edges,  and  two  ends,  as 
in  Fig.  32. 


/                                  EDGE 

/ 

SIDE 

Q 
Z 
u 

Fio-    30 
r  ig.  o_. 


Fig.  33. 


The  gauge  consists  of  two  principal  parts  —  the  stick  and 
the  block,  as  in  Fig.  33,  which  figure  also  shows  the  method 


USE  OF  TEE  GAUGE. 


17 


of  holding  the  gauge  while  adjusting  it.  (The  steel  point 
should  be  filed  to  a  goose-bill  shape  so  as  to  cut,  not  scratch, 
a  line.  See  two  views  of  it  at  A.) 

Problem  I.  Gauge-Drill.  —  Hold  the  gauge-stick  as  in  Fig. 
33,  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand  grasping  it  securely,  while  the 
left  thumb  is  free  to  move  up  and  down  the  stick,  and  be  kept 
in  constant  contact  with  the  block.  With  the  right  hand  turn 
the  set-screw  about  one-half  a  revolution  to  loosen  it,  then 
raise  or  lower  the  block,  keeping  hold  of  the  set-screw  mean- 
while with  the  right  hand,  and  keeping  the  left  thumb  mean- 
while in  constant  contact  with  the  block. 

Requiring  the  observance  of  the  above  instructions,  give  the 
class  a  drill  in  unison  in  setting  the  block  at  inch  and  at  half- 
inch  graduations,  then  at  quarter-inches,  then  at  eighths,  and 
finally  at  sixteenths. 

Problem  II.     Gauge  Practice. — For  convenience  in  holding 


Fig.  34. 


work,  have  a  rabbit  cut  in  the  right-hand  end  of  the  bench-top, 
9  in.  long,  1  in.  wide  X  i  in-  deep,  as  in  Fig.  34. 


18 


ELEMENTARY   WOODWORK. 


Provide  a  quantity  of  boards  prepared  by  machinery,  8  in. 
X  2  in.  X  tV  in-  r-^ne  thickness  of  -^  in.  is  chosen  because 
£  in-  boards  resawed  and  planed  will  finish  to  that  thickness. 
The  dimensions,  8  in.  long  X  2  in.  wide,  are  chosen  for  con- 
venience. The  chief  requisite  is  that  the  boards  have  straight 
edges.  For  a  class  of  25  pupils  provide  at  least  100  boards. 
Supply  each  pupil  with  one  of  the  above  pieces.  Hold  it  in 
the  rabbit  on  the  bench  by  means  of  the  left  hand  and  hold 
the  gauge  on  it  with  the  right  hand,  as  in  Fig.  35. 


Fig.  35. 

Of  that  portion  of  the  gauge-stick  marked  ef,  the  corner 
which  is  lowest  and  which  is  farthest  from  you  must  rest  on 
the  work  as  in  the  end  view,  A.  Fig.  36,  where  the  steel  point 
does  not  touch  the  wood.  (Important  feature  No.  1.) 

Then  roll  the  gauge  toward  you  .till  the  point  touches  the 
wood,  as  at  B.  Do  not  roll  it  till  the  point  stands  vertical,  as 


USE  OF  TIIE   GAUGE. 


19 


at  C,  for  then  the  point  will  enter  the  wood  too  deeply  and 
make  too  heavy  a  line.  Skill  must  be  obtained  to  make  any 
depth  of  line  called  for  by  holding  the  gauge  rolled  at  the 


Fig.  36. 

desired  amount  between  the  positions  A  and  C.  (Important 
feature  No.  2.)  That  face  of  the  gauge-block  which  rests 
against  the  edge  ab  of  the  work  must  also  be  placed  in  per- 
fect contact  throughout  its  entire  length  and  kept  so  while  a 
line  is  being  gauged.  (Important  feature  No.  3.)  There  are, 
therefore,  three  important  features  to  be  noted  simultaneously 
in  every  act  of  gauging,  and  the  pupil  should  drill  till  he  can 
note  them  intuitively. 

With  the  gauge  set  at  \  in.  and  observing  diligently  all  of 
the  above  instructions  gauge  a  line  from  each  edge  on  one  side 
of  the  board,  as  in  Fig.  37.  In  doing  this  drive  the  gauge 
forward ;  that  is,  from  a  toward  b  in  Fig.  35. 


Fig.  37. 


Repeat  the  process  on  the  other  side  of  the  board,  making 
four  lines  in  all  with  the  \  in.  setting.     Set  the  gauge  ^  in. 


20 


ELEMEN TA BY   WO OD WORE. 


and  make  four  more  lines  as  above,  then  set  it  §  in.,  or 
,-j^-  in.,  and  repeat.  So  continue  till  ^  in.  setting  is  reached 
and  a  side  of  the  board  will  appear  as  in  Fig.  38. 

Bequest  each  pupil  to  write  his  name  neatly  in  the  unlined 
space  on  one  side  of  the  board,  and  then,  setting  the  gauge  at 


f                                                               / 

PUPIL'S    NAME 

successive  sixteenths  above  £  in.,  fill  the  back  side  with  lines, 
as  in.  Fig.  39.  These  should  show  improvement  over  the 
previous  lines. 


Fig.  39. 


Rapid  workmen  may  repeat  the  problem  on  another  board. 
Every  workman  needs  to  master  the  problem  'as  a  necessary 
condition  to  his  success  with  future  lessons. 

Mark  2  off  from  100  for  every  line  that  is  left  broken  or 
crooked. 

Problem  III.  Gauging  on  Edges  and  Ends  of  Boards.  — 
Set  the  gauge  -fa  in.  and  gauge  on  the  edges  and  ends  of  the 
boards  used  in  the  previous  problem.  Set  the  gauge  \  in.  and 


MEASUREMENT. 


21 


repeat.     This  will  be  found  more  difficult  than  Problem  II. 
The  work  will  appear  as  in  Fig.  40. 


Fiar.  40. 


Further  practice  in  edge  and  end  gauging  can  be  had  on 
boards  which  will  be  used  in  the  next  two  lessons. 

Require  each  pupil  to  .write  his  name  on  every  piece  of 
finished  work. 


LESSON   III. 

MEASUREMENT. 

IN  practical  work  measurement  precedes  gauging,  which 
was  the  subject  of  Lesson  II.  In  this  course  of  lessons  it  is 
placed  after  gauging  in  order  that  lines  may  be  gauged  on  the 
board'  used  in  the  measurement  problems. 

Problem  I.  Measurement  with  Pencil.  —  Take  a  board  8  in. 
X  2  in.  X  tV  i*1-  Set  the  gauge  successively  at  \  in.,  £  in., 
and  |  in.,  and  at  every  setting  gauge  two  lines  on  each  side 


Fig.  41. 

of  the  board.     Set  the  gauge  1  in.  and  gauge  one  line, 
side  will  appear  as  in  Fig.  41. 


Each 


22 


ELEMENTARY   WOODWORK. 


See  that  the  pencil  has  a  sharp  point.    This  can  be  done  by 
first  whittling  it  with  the  knife,  making  a  cone  £  in.  long,  as 


Fig.  42. 

in  Fig.  42,  and  then  perfecting  it  with  a  piece  of  No.  0  sand- 
paper as  follows :  — 

Hold  the  sand-paper  on  the  bench  with  the  left  hand,  as  in 
Fig.  43.  Hold  the  pencil-point  on  the  sand-paper  near  to  the 
end  a,  the  fingers  of  the  right  hand  being  in  the  position 
shown  at  A,  and  draw  the-  pencil  toward  b,  rolling  it  under- 
neath while  doing  so,  bringing  the  fingers  of  the  right  hand 


to  the  position '  shown  at  B,  thus  preserving  the  cone  shape 
while  sanding.  Release  the  grasp  which  the  thumb  and  the 
two  fore-fingers  have  on  the  pencil,  and,  holding  it  by  the 
remaining  fingers,  as  at  C,  carry  it  back  to  a  and  repeat 
the  sanding  process  until  the  pencil-point  is  sharp. 

Hold  the  rule  on  the  board,  one  end  of  it  exactly  agreeing 


ME  AS  UliEMENT. 


23 


with  the  end  of  the  board,  and  the  graduated  edge  of  the  rule 
near  to  one  of  the  gauged  lines,  as  in  Fig.  44. 


•Kg.  44. 

Place  the  pencil-point  on  the  gauged  line  and  successively 
against  each  \  in.  graduation  of  the  rule,  holding  it  as  in  Fig. 
44,  and  giving  it  a  slight  revolution  to  imprint  a  dot. 

Eepeat  on  a  second  line  at  every  £  in.,  and  the  work  will 
appear  as  in  Fig.  45. 


Fig.  45. 


Problem  II.  Measurement  with  the  Knife.  —  To  sharpen  the 
knife-point,  first  grind  it  till  the  edge  is  thin.  This  is  a  diffi- 
cult operation,  requiring  skill,  and  a  workman  of  experience 


24 


ELEMENT  A  R  Y    WOOD  WORK. 


'/ 


Fig.  46.        Fig.  47. 


must  do  it.  Next  put  a  few  drops  of  kerosene  oil  on  the  oil 
stone,  and  hold  the  knife-blade  on  the  stone,  as  in  Fig.  46. 
Keep  the  ground  face  of  the  blade  in  perfect 
contact  with  the  stone,  and  make  a  few  ellip- 
tical motions,  as  indicated  by  the  dotted  line, 
so  adjusting  the  strain  of  the  muscles  in  grasp- 
ing the  knife  that  the  rubbing  will  be  done  at 
and  near  the  edge  and  not  at  or  near  the  back 
of  the  blade,  also  constantly  raising  and  lower- 
ing the  hand  about  £  in.  to  cause  the  stoning  to 
be  effective  from  the  extreme  point  of  the  blade 
along  the  curve  of  the  edge  to  the  place  where  the  blade  is  of 
full  width,  that  is,  from  c  to  d,  Fig.  47. 

It  is  manifest  that  both  sides  of  the  blade  need  this  treat- 
ment. After  a  few  motions  inspect  it  to  see  if  the  stoning  is 
being  done  as  above  directed.  If  not,  strain  the  muscles  dif- 
ferently next  time  according  as  the  error  suggests.  Test  the 
edge  by  touching  it  to  the  ball  of  the  left  thumb,  or  by  cut- 
ting a  piece  of  soft  pine.  Sometimes  an  edge  will  be  inad- 
vertently ground  or  stoned  too  thin,  that  is,  so  as  to  leave  a 
feather  which  is  shown  exaggerated  at  a  b,  Fig.  48. 

This  must  be  worn  off  at  a  by  light 

stoning  or  by  rubbing  on  the  palm  of  I  --• — / 

the  hand,  or  on  a  piece  of  leather 
into  which  has  been-  rubbed  a  little 
lard  and  emery  flour,  or  on  the  clean  upper  of  one's  shoe. 

Take  the  board  used  in  Problem  I.  Hold  the  rule  on 
it  near  the  third  line ;  hold  the  knife  as  in  Fig.  49,  and  press 
it  vertically,  making  points  at  every  £  in.  graduation  of  the 
rule. 

See  that  the  points  made  are  large  enough  to  be  easily  seen 
at  arm's  length,  that  they  are  of  uniform  size,  and  all  at  exact 
right  angles  to  the  gauged  line. 

Repeat  the  effort  on  the  fourth  line,  placing  points  at  every 
-jJg-  in.  of  alternate  inches.  The  object  of  utilizing  only  alter- 


ME  A  S  UREMENT. 


25 


Fig.  49. . 

nate  inches  is  to  give  opportunity  to  rest  the  hand.    The  work 
will  appear  as  the  third  and  fourth  lines  in  Fig.  50. 


Fig.  60. 

Eapid  workmen  may  place  points  on  additional  lines. 
Slower  workmen  need  not  complete  the  sixteenths,  but  should 
do  accurate  work  as  far  as  they  proceed. 

Problem  III.  Varying  Measurements.  —  Let  the  class  work 
in  unison,  placing-  the  rule  on  a  fifth  line  and  making  meas- 
urements at  the  teacher's  call.  If  the  measurements  com- 
mence at  the  right,  and  the  calls  are  successively  1  in.,  \  in., 
\  in.,  \  in.,  \  in.,  £  in.,  their  sum  will  be  2f  in.  as  in  the  fifth 
line  Fig.  50. 


26 


ELEMEN TABY   WOOD  WOEK. 


Place  points  on  the  remaining  lines  in  a  similar  manner, 
calling  a  different  succession  of  measurements  for  each  line, 
until  the  entire  class  during  a  given  effort  reach  the  correct 
sum. 


LESSON  IV. 

USE   OF    TRY-SQUARE    AND    BEVEL. 

THE  gauge  is  used,,  as  was  described  in  Lesson  II.,  to  make 
lines  on  the  side  or  edge  of  a  board  parallel  to  the  grain.  The 
try-square  is  used  to  guide  a  pencil  or  knife  in  making  lines 
at  right  angles  to  the  grain.  It  consists  of  two  parts,  the 
beam  and  the  blade,  as  in  Fig.  51. 


Fig.  51. 


Problem  I.     Use  of  Try-Square  with  Pencil.  —  Take  a  board 


Fig.  52. 

8  in.  X  1£  in.  X  I  in.  Hold  the  rule  on  it,  as  in  Fig.  52,  and 
with  a  fine  pencil-point,  operating  as  in  the  measurement 
lesson,  place  points  on  the  wood  at  every  inch  graduation  of 
the  rule. 


USE  OF  TRY-SQUARE  AND  BEVEL. 


27 


Hold  the  try-square  as  in  Fig.  53,  using  the  left  fore-finger 
to  press  the  blade  firmly  to  the  face  of  the  board  while  the 
thumb  and  remaining  fingers  hold  the  beam  firmly  against 
its  edge.  Place  the  point  of  the  pencil  in  one  of  the  points 
which  it  has  made  on  the  board,  carefully  move  the  try- 
square  against  it,  raise  the  pencil,  and  with  it  draw  a  fine  line 
across  the  board  close  to  the  blade  of  the  try-square. 


Fig.  53. 


Fig.  54. 


In  doing  this  the  right  hand  should  grasp  the  pencil  as 
though  writing  with  it,  and  the  pencil  should  incline  to  the 
right  just  enough  to  bring  the  left  side  of  its  cone  of  sharpen- 
ing vertical,  as  in  Fig.  54,  which  is  a  front  view  of  the 
pencil,  try-square  blade,  and  board.  Draw  the  pencil  only 
once. 

Turn  the  board  so  as  to  bring  its  front  edge  uppermost,  and 
in  a  similar  manner  draw  a  line  across  that  edge,  as  in  Fig.  55. 


Fig.  55. 


28 


ELEMENTARY   WOODWORK. 


Repeat  this  process  on  the  second  side,  and  lastly  on  the 
second  edge,  when  a  line  is  squared  entirely  around  the  board 
and  should  meet  its  starting-point,  as  in  Fig.  56. 


Fig.  56. 

In  Fig.  55  the  right  hand  holds  a  knife  instead  of  a  pencil, 
and  in  that  respect  illustrates  Problem  II.,  instead  of  Problem  I. 

Square  lines  around  the  board  through  the  other  points. 
The  effort  of  the  pupil  must  not  be  to  fill  the  board  with 
lines,  however,  but  to  make  perfect  lines. 

Problem  II.  Use  of  Try-Square  with  Knife.  —  Lay  the  rule 
on  the  board  again,  as  in  Fig.  52,  and  with  a  sharp  knife  point, 
operating  as  in  the  measurement  lesson,  make  impressions  in 
the  wood  at  half-inches. 

Use  the  knife  as  the  pencil  was  used  in  Problem  I.,  and  square 
lines  around  the  board  passing  through  these  half-inch  points. 
The  knife,  like  the  pencil,  must  be  inclined  to  the  right,  just 
enough  only  to  allow  its  point  to  cut  the  wood  close  to  the 
try-square  blade.  The  knife  blade  must  furthermore  be  turned 
as  in  the  plan  view  A,  Fig.  57.  If  it  is  turned  too  much  to 
the  right,  as  at  B,  it  will  move  away  from  the  try-square  blade 
in  the  direction  of  the  dotted  lines.  If  turned  too  much  to 


Fig.  57. 


the  left,  as  at  C,  it  is  liable  to  be  dulled  as  it  slides  along  the 
try-square  blade,  and  there  is  danger  of  its  pushing  the  try- 


USE  OF  TRY-SQUARE  AND  BEVEL. 


29 


square  blade  out  of  place,  unless  the  grasp  of  the  left  hand  is 
very  firm.  This  same  danger  of  the  try-square  slipping  is  im- 
minent, if  at  any  time  the  right  hand  presses  the  knife  too 
hard  against  square. 

In  Problem  I.  instructions  were  given  to  draw  the  pencil 
but  once  in  making  any  given  line.  This  is  to  avoid  wearing 
away  the  pencil  and  blurring  the  line.  The  knife,  on  the  con- 
trary, needs  to  be  drawn  twice,  first  lightly  to  locate  the  line, 
and  second  heavier  to  deepen  it,  as  each  line  should  be  deep 
enough  to  be  seen  when  held  at  arm's  length,  or  should  easily 
arrest  the  finger  nail  when  drawn  across  it.  After  squaring 
any  given  line  around  the  board,  rest  a-  few  seconds  before 
commencing  another.  Otherwise  the  muscles  will  tire  and 
success  be  impossible.  A  board  filled  with  pencil  lines  at 
every  inch  and  knife  lines  at  every  half-inch  will  appear,  as 
in  Fig.  58. 


Fig.  58. 

If  success  is  not  yet  attained,  practise  the  making  of  lines 
at  every  £  in.,  and,  if  necessary,  at  every  £  in. 

.Problem  III.  Use  of  Gauge  and  Try-Square  Combined.  — 
Take  a  board  4  in.  X  2  in.  X  1%  in.  Hold  the  rule  on  it,  as  in 


Fig.  60. 


Fig.  52,  and  place  six  knife-points 
each  end,  as  in  Fig.  59. 


in.  apart,  measuriiTg  from 


30 


ELEMENTARY   WOODWORK. 


Square  knife-lines  through  the  two  extreme  points ;  set  the 
gauge  £  in.  and  gauge  from  each  edge  of  the  board,  starting 
and  stopping  on  the  squared  lines,  as  in  Fig.  60.  Square  knife- 
lines  through  the  second  points  from  each  end,  starting  and 
stopping  on  the  gauged  lines  ;  set  the  gauge  ^  in.  and  gauge 
between  the  knife-lines  as  before.  Proceed  in  this  manner 
till  all  of  the  twelve  points  are  utilized,  when  the  work  will 
appear  as  in  Fig.  61.  Eapid  workmen  may  draw  diagonals  on 


Fig.  61. 


the  opposite  side  of  the  board,  and  between  them  gauge  lines 
£  in.  apart  and  square  lines  J  in.  apart,  as  in  Fig.  62. 


Fig.  62. 


Problem  IV.  Use  of  Bevel.  —  In  making  lines  other  than 
at  right  angles  to  the  edge  of  a  board  an  adjustable  square  or 
bevel  is  needed,  as  in  Fig.  63.  It  is  held  and  used  the  same 
as  the  try-square. 

Prepare  a  board,  as  directed  in  connection  with  Fig.  52,  and 


USE  OF  TEY-SQUARE  AND  BEVEL. 


31 


through  each  point,  with  the  bevel  set  at  any  chosen  angle, 
draw  pencil-lines  on  one  side  of  the  board.     Continue  these 


Fig.  63. 


lines  around  the  board  in  a  manner  similar  to  Problem  I., 
squaring  across  the  edges  and  bevelling  across  the  opposite 
side.  The  work  will  appear  as  in  Fig.  64. 


Fig.  64. 


Problem  V.  Use  of  Bevel  with  Knife.  —  Place  knife-points 
on  the  board  at  half-inches  and  cut  .bevelled  lines  through 
them,  continuing  them  around  the  board  like  the  pencil-lines. 
Repeat  at  \  in.  if  necessary. 

Problem  VI.  Let  rapid  workmen  take  a  new  board  and 
draw  lines  around  it,  using  the  bevel  on  both  sides  and  both 
edges.  The  work  will  appear  as  in  Fig.  65. 


32 


ELEMENTARY   WOODWORK. 


It  will  be  a  sufficient  register  of  a  pupil's  attainment  to 
inspect  the  work  represented  by  Fig.  61,  and  mark  1  off  from 


100  for  every  crooked  line  and  for  every  line  that  crosses 
another. 


LESSON   V. 

JEXPLANATION    OF    THE    -DIFFERENCE    BETWEEN    SLITTING    AND 
CUTTING-OFF    SAWS. 

PROVIDE  for  the  teacher  two  models  in  wood,  one  of  a  slit- 
ting and  one  of  a  cutting-off  saw.  These  may  be  each  30  in. 
X  3  in.  X  £  in.,  the  slitting  teeth  2£  X  !£>  and  the  cutting- 
off  teeth  2  in.  X  lj  in. 

Problem  I.      Slitting-Saw.  —  Take  a  board  4  in.  X  2  in.  X 


Fig.  66. 


Fig.  67. 


•j^-  in. ;  on  one  side  of  it  gauge  two  lines  \  in.  and  f  in.  respec- 
tively from  one  edge,  as  in  Fig.  66. 


SLITTING   AND   CUTTING-OFF  SAWS. 


33 


Place  the  clnpping-block  on  the  bench  and  lay  the  board  on 
it  with  an  end  toward  you,  guiding  the  chisel-edge  with  a 
finger  of  the  left  hand.  Hold  the  |  in.  chisel  in  the  right  hand 
exactly  vertical,  as  in  Fig.  67,  with  the  bevelled  edge  away 
from  you,  and  cut  between  the  gauged  lines  a  chip  about  ^ 
in.  long  and  entirely  through  the  board  from  its  upper  to  its 
lower  side,  as  in  Fig.  68. 


Fig 


Fig.  09. 


Fig.  70. 


Continue  in  this  manner  to  cut  successive  chips,  each  about 
^  in.  long,  and  each  entirely  through  the  thickness  of  the 
board,  until  the  slowest  workmen  have  made  a  cutting  about 
^  in.  long,  as  in  Fig.  69.  This  cutting  is  called  a  kerf. 

Rapid  workmen  will  have  made  a  kerf  nearly  or  quite  the 
length  of  the  board. 

If  we  should  make  two  lines  crosswise  of  the  board  and  en- 
deavor to  chisel  between  them,  we  could  not  make  a  kerf, 
but  should  splinter  the  board,  as  in  Fig.  70. 


Fig.  71. 


Fig.  71  is  a  view  of  the  wooden  model  of  a  slitting-saw. 

Its  teeth -are  a  succession  of  chisels.  The  front  edge  of 
each  tooth,  as  a  b,  is  at  right  angles  to  a  line  touching  the 
points,  and  all  of  the  slant  of  the  tooth  is  on  the  rear  edge,  as 


34 


ELEMENTARY   WOODWORK. 


a  c.    From  the  above  experimental  problem  it  is  manifest  that 
such  a  saw  is  suitable  for  slit-sawing  only. 

Problem  II.  Cuttiny-off  Saw.  —  Take  the  board  used  in  the 
previous  problem,  or  one  similar  to  it,  and  using  try-square 
and  knife,  make  two  lines  across  the  board  ^  in.  apart,  the 
right  hand  line  being  £  in.  from  the  end,  as  in  Fig.  72. 

Lay  the  board  on  the  chipping-block, 
holding  it  with  the  left  hand.  Hold  the 
knife  as  a  pen  is  held  in  writing.  Incline 
it  toward  you  about  30°  from  a  vertical 
position,  as  in  Fig.  73,  but  do  not  incline 
it  at  all  toward  the  right  or  left. 
Draw  the  knife  across  the  board  along  one  of  the  above 
lines,  and  then  along  the  other.  Continue  to  do  this  alter- 
nately, and  what  happens  ?  "  The  wood  splits  out  between 
the  lines,  making  a  kerf."  If  we  proceed  in  this  manner,  the 
board  will  soon  be  cut  in  two. 


Fig.  TZ. 


Fig.  73. 


A  kerf  cannot  be  cut  lengthwise  of  the  grain  by  this  pro- 
cess, because  the  wood  will  not  split  out  between  the  lines. 

If  we  had  a  knife  with  two  blades  of  equal  length  and  ^ 
in.  apart,  we  could  draw  it  through  both  lines  at  the  same 
time. 

Fig.  74  is  a  view  of  the  wooden  model  of  a  cutting-off  saw. 
Its  teeth  slant  about  equally  on  each  edge  and  are  bevelled  so 


SLITTING  AND   CUTTING-OFF  SAWS. 


35 


that  alternate  teeth  are  pointed  on  one  side  of  the  saw,  the 
intervening  teeth  being  pointed  on  the  other  side. 


Its  use  produces  a  result  quite  similar  to  the  above  experi- 
mental problem  with  the  knife ;  that  is,  marking  two  parallel 
lines  across  the  board  and  breaking  out  the  wood  between 
them.  The  teeth  of  a  cutting-off  saw  may  then  be  considered 
as  a  succession  of  pairs  of  knife-points. 

Another  important  fact  concerning  saws  is  that  the  teeth 
are  "  set ; "  that  is,  alternate  teeth  bent  toward  one  side,  and 
the  intervening  teeth  bent  toward  the  other  side.  In  the  cut- 
ting-off  saw  the  teeth  which  are  pointed  on  a  given  side  are 
bent  toward  that  side,  as  in  Fig.  75. 


Fig.  75. 


Fig.  76. 


The  object  of  this  is  to  have  the  saw  cut  a  kerf  wider  than 
the  thickness  of  its  blade,  in  order  that  the  saw  may  pass 
easily  through  the  kerf  which  it  is  making.  Owing  to  this 
setting  and  to  its  bevelled  filing,  a  cutting-off  saw  appears 


36 


ELEMENTARY    WOODWORK. 


grooved  along-  the  line  of  teeth  when  viewed  endwise,  as  in 
Fig.  75.  Hold  the  model  inclined,  as  in  Fig.  76,  and  a  straight 
rod  10  in.  long  X  i  in-  diameter  will  slide  down  this  groove. 
An,  ordinary  needle  will  slide  down  the  teeth  of  a  cutting-off 
saw  in  a  similar  manner. 

Each  pupil  may  take  in  hand  the  two  18-in.  saws  on  his 
bench,  examine  them  carefully,  and  hold  the  slitting-saw  in  his 
right  hand  and  the  cutting-off  saw  in  his  left. 

Very  few  pupils  will  fail  to  make  the  selection  accurately 
after  the  above  experimental  description. 


LESSON   VI. 

USE   OF    SAWS. 


Problem  I.     To  Start  the  Kerf.  —  Take  a  waste  piece  of 
board  of  any  dimensions,  4  X  2  X  I  will  answer.     Place  it 


Fig.  77. 


end  uppermost  in  the  vise.     With  try-square  and  pencil  draw 
lines  on  the  upper  end  J  in.  apart.     Hold  the  slitting-saw  in 


USE  OF  SAWS.  37 

the  right  hand,  guiding  it  with  the  left  thumb  so  that  its  teeth 
shall  rest  on  one  of  the  lines.  Drive  the  saw  'first  forward 
and  then  back  several  times,  taking  full  length  strokes  to 
within  about  1  in.  of  each  end,  meantime  so  controlling  the 
muscles  of  the  right  hand  that,  although  the  saw  teeth  touch 
the  wood  during  each  entire  stroke,  they  shall  not  cut  into  it 
at  all.  The  commencement  of  this  process  is  illustrated  in 
Tig.  77. 

The  teacher  should  be  able  to  drive  the  saw  forward  and 
back  on  the  left  hand,  as  in  Fig.  78,  touching  the  palm  con- 


stantly, but  not  injuring  it,  to  illustrate  clearly  to  pupils  that 
it  can  be  done.  Require  the  class  to  drive  the  saw  forward 
and  back  on  the  wood  as  above,  acting  in  concert  as  the  teacher 
counts  1,  2;  1,  2,  etc.,  in  order  to  get  a  moderate,  regular 
motion,  as  boys  left  to  themselves  will  saw  with  fury.  The 
power  to  follow  all  of  the  above  directions  we  will  term  get- 


38 


ELEMENTARY   WOODWORK. 


ting  command  of  the  saw ;  and  every  pupil  needs  to  get  this 
command  before  being  allowed  to  saw. 

Next  let  the  weight  of  the  saw  bear  on  the  board  while  the 
forward  stroke  is  being  made,  but  not  during  the  backward 
stroke,  and  the  saw  will  descend  into  the  wood,  making  a  cut 
which  is  technically  called  a  kerf. 

At  the  commencement  and  close  of  each  forward  stroke  the 
saw  should  be  held  at  command.  Midway  of  each  forward 
stroke  it  should  do  its  heaviest  cutting.  The  full  stroke 
should  be  a  crescendo  followed  by  a  diminuendo  as  in  music. 
The  saw  should  be  held  at  command  during  the  entire  back- 
ward stroke. 

Problem  II.  Slit-Sawing  Near  to  Line.  —  Take  a  board  8 
in.  X  2  in.  X  J  in-  and  make  an  X  on  one  edge.  Set  the 
gauge  \  in.  and  gauge  two  lines  on  each  side  and  each  end,  as 
in  Fig.  79.  Set  the  gauge  \  in.  and  repeat ;  then  f  in.  and 


Fig.  79.  Fig.  80. 

repeat ;  then  1  in.  and  gauge  around  once,  that  is,  from  the 
X  edge.  Square  around  with  fine  pencil-point  at  every  inch. 
The  work  will  appear  as  in  Fig.  80. 


USE  OF  SAWS. 


39 


Hold  the  work  in  the  vise,  end  uppermost,  as  in  Fig.  77, 
one-half  of  it  buried,  and  saw  a  kerf  ^  in.  to  the  right  of  the 
right-hand  line.  When  this  kerf  has  proceeded  downward  1 
in.,  that  is,  to  the  first  squared  line,  stop  and  examine  it  care- 
fully, and  if  it  has  not  kept  parallel  with  the  gauged  line, 
scrape  it  with  that  portion  of  the  saw  nearest  the  handle, 
commonly  called  the  heel  of  the  saw,  until  it  is  restored  to 
parallel.  A,  Fig.  81,  represents  a  kerf  at  first  running  to  the 


Fig.  81. 


Fig.  82. 


right,  but  afterwards  restored  to  its  proper  position  and  con- 
tinued a  little  below  the  squared  line.  B  represents  a  kerf 
running  at  first  to  the  left  and  afterward  restored.  On  no 
account  should  the  kerf  be  allowed  to  proceed  belo\v  the 
squared  line  till  its  wrong  direction,  if  it  have  any,  is  rectified, 
and  the  aim  of  the  pupil  must  be  to  keep  the  saw  from  run- 
ning at  all  to  either  side.  Furthermore,  the  location  of  the 
kerf  should  be  as  accurate  on  the  back  side  of  the  work  as  on 
the  front. 

Proceed  to  saw  down  to  the  second  squared  line,  stop  and 


40 


ELEMENTARY   WOOD  WORK. 


inspect,  and  correct  if  necessary.  Proceed  to  saw  down  to  the 
third  squared  line,  and  stop  on  it. 

In  the  same  manner  saw  near  to  the  remaining  gauged 
lines.  The  work  will  appear  as  the  upper  portion  of  Fig.  82, 
where  for  clearness,  as  also  in  Fig.  81,  only  one-half  of  the 
number  of  lines  gauged  on  Fig.  80  are  shown.  Mark  10  off 
from  100  for  every  line  which  at  its  finish  deviates  -^  in.  from 
its  proper  position. 

Problem  III.  Slit-Sawing  Close  to  Line.  —  Place  the  op- 
posite end  of  the  work  uppermost,  and  saw  so  that  the  left 
side  of  the  saw-blade  shall  cut  to  the  centre  of  the  line,  ob- 
serving in  all  other  respects  the  directions  given  above,  and 
the  work  will  appear  as  the  lower  portion  of  Fig.  82. 

Problem  IV.  Cut-off  Sawing  Near  to  Line.  —  Take  a  board 
8  in.  X  3£  in.  X  I  in->  gauge-lines  at  every  £  in.  on  the  sides 
and  square  pencil-lines  round  at  every  \  in.  Put  it  in 
the  vise  with  an  edge  uppermost,  and,  observing  directions 
given  in  Problem  II.,  saw  near  to  every  line,  as  in  the  upper 
portion  of  Fig.  83. 

Mark  5  off  from  100  for  every  line  that  deviates,  at  its 
finish,  -^  in.  from  its  proper  position. 

Problem  V.  Cut-off  Sawing  Close  to  Line. — Place  the  board 
in  the  vise  with  the  opposite  edge  uppermost,  and,  observing 
directions  given  in  Problem  III.,  saw  close  to  the  line.  The 
work  will  appear  as  in  the  lower  portion  of  Fig.  83. 


Fig.  83. 


Kapid  workmen  may  take  a  second  board  and  repeat,  which 
repetition  will  increase  their  proficiency,  or  they  may  saw 
diagonally. 


SUE  FACE  PLANING. 


41 


LESSOX  VII. 

SURFACE    PLANING. 

THE  two  sides  of  a  board,  or  the  four  sides  of  a  square  stick, 
being  larger  surfaces  than  edges  or  ends,  are  often  technically 
called  surfaces,  and  planing  them  is  known  as  surface  planing. 

The  principal  planes  used  by  wood  workmen  are  jack-plane 
14  in.  long,  fore-plane  14  in.,  jointer  22  in.,  smooth-plane  8  in., 
and  block-plane  6  in.,  and  these  may  be  of  wood  or  of  iron. 
The  blade  of  the  jack-plane  is  ground  so  that  its  edge  is  a 
continuous  curve,  as  in  Fig.  84.  All  other  plane  blades  are 
ground  as  in  Fig.  85 ;  that  is,  with  the  edge  straight  for  some- 


Fig.  84. 


Fig.  85. 


what  more  than  one-half  of  its  length,  then  rounded  slightly 
at  each  end.  The  jack-plane  and  block-plane  each  have  single 
blades,  as  in  Fig.  86.  All  others  have  double  blades ;  that  is, 
the  blade  is  provided  with  a  cap,  as  in  Fig.  87. 


Fig.  87. 


•This  cap  is  necessary  when  cross-grained  or  complex-grained 
boards  are  to  be  planed.  It  is  then  brought  down  as  near  to. 
the  cutting-edge  of  the  blade  as  possible,  but  for  straight- 


42 


ELEMENTARY   WOODWORK. 


grained  wood  it  is  of  no  special  service,  and  had  better  be  set 
back  about  ^  in.     It  is  so  set  in  these  lessons. 

Only  three  planes  are  needed  in  this  series  of  lessons,  to  the 
first  two  of  which  we  will  for  convenience  give  special  names 
of  our  own.  An  8  in.  wooden  smooth-plane  (Fig.  88)  is  used 
for  all  rough  planing,  and  we  will  call  it  the  roufjliln<j-plane. 
An  8  in.  "iron  smooth-plane  (Fig.  89)  is  used  for  all  finish 


J?ig.  88 


planing  parallel  with  the  grain ;  that  is,  on  sides  and  edges  of 
boards,  and  we  will  call  it  the  finishing-plane.  A  6  in.  iron 
block-plane  (Fig.  90)  is  used  for  all  planing  on  the  ends  of 
boards. 

The  block-plane  differs  from  all  others  in  having  its  blade 
inverted,  as  in  Fig.  91,  and  is  set  at*a  more  acute  angle  with 
the  face  or  under  side  of  the  block,  as  will  be  seen  in  compar- 
ing Fig.  90  with  Figs.  88  and  89. 

The  knob  on  the  front  end  of  the  block-plane  seen  at  A 
Fig.  90  is  a  screw  to  hold  in  place  the  throat-plate  which  is 


Fig.  90. 


Fig.  91 


the  adjustable  front  portion  of  the  face  or  under  side  of  the 
plane.     Sometimes  this  throat-plate  is  accidentally  slipped 


SURFACE  OF  PLANING. 


43 


till  it  strikes  the  blade,  and  the  throat  is  thereby  closed  so 
that  shavings  cannot  conie  out.  Look  out  for  this  danger. 

Problem  I.  Rouyh  Planing.  —  Each  pupil  takes  his  rough- 
ing-plane  in  hand  and  follows  instructions  given  by  the 
teacher,  who  shows  how  to  hold  the  plane  while  removing  the 
blade,  and  then  names  and  explains  each  of  its  parts.  In 
removing  the  blade,  strike  with  a  hammer  either  on  the  rear 
end,  A,  or  on  the  front  portion  of  the  top,  B,  but  never  on 
the  front  end,  C.  Ke-assenible  and  adjust  the  parts. 

Take  a  board,  preferably  12  in.  wide,  though  any  other 
width  will  answer,  and  saw  off  for  each  pupil  a  piece  8£  in. 
long.  With  pencil  and  straight-edge  draw  lines  on  it  length- 
wise 3  in.  apart,  as  in  Fig.  92. 


Fig.  93. 

Hold  this  piece  in  the  vise  and  saw  on  the  lines,  dividing  it 
in  four  pieces,  3  in.  rough  width.  Hold  these  pieces  in  the 
vise  successively  and  rough-plane  both  edges  till  saw  marks 
are  removed.  Two  or  three  strokes  of  the  rough  ing-plane 
ought  to  do  this.  Be  sure  that  the  plane  cuts  a  shaving  at 
every  stroke  and  that  it  cuts  a  shaving  along  the  entire  length 
of  the  work.  A  common  fault  with  beginners  is  to  omit  plan- 
ing at  the  rear  end,  or  the  end  first  met  by  the  blade,  and 
commencing  when  the  blade  is  well  on  the  wood  continue  to 
plane  the  rest  of  the  way,  giving  the  board  the  tapering  shape 
of  Fig.  93.  Make  sure  at  the  outset  that  this  tendency  is 
overcome. 


44 


ELEMENTARY    WOODWORK. 


Problem  II.  Surface  Planing.  —  Take  the  finishing-plane 
apart,  give  names  to  the  several  pieces,  and  explain  the  prov- 
ince of  each.  Ke-assernble  the  plane  and  adjust  it  thus : 
Holding  it  with  face  uppermost,  sight  along  the  face  to  see  if 
the  blade  projects.  Turn  the  adjusting-screw,  a,  in  the  neces- 
sary direction,  and  move  the  lever,  b,  the  necessary  AVRV  to 
cause  the  middle  portion  of  the  blade's  edge  to  appear  in  sight 
while  its  ends  do  not,  as  in  the  diagram  Fig.  94. 


Fig.  94. 

Put  on  the  blackboard,  or  on  cardboard  to  hang  perma- 
nently on  the  wall,  the  two  diagrams  Fig.  95,  to  assist  pupils 


Fig.  95. 

in  knowing  which  way  to  turn  adjusting-screws.  A  is  a' 
diagram  of  the  finishing-plane,  B  of  the  block-plane.  To 
force  the  blade  of  either  plane  downward,  that  is,  when  a 
thicker  shaving  is  needed,  turn  the  front  side  of  the  adjusting- 
screw  in  the  direction  of  the  arrow.  To  draw  the  blade  up 
turn  the  screw  in  the  opposite  direction. 

A  good  way  for  beginners  to  test  the  adjustment  minutely 
is  to  hold  the  plane  in  the  left  hand,  face  uppermost,  and  with 
the  right  hand  draw  a  small  strip  of  thin  board  (4  in.  X  1  in. 


SURFACE  PLANING. 


45 


X  \  in.  will  answer)  over  the  edge.  A  shaving  should  be  cut 
when  drawing  such  a  strip  along  the  middle  of  the  plane's 
face,  as  on  the  dotted  line,  a,  Fig.  96,  but  not  when  drawing  it 
near  the  edge,  as  on  either  of  the  dotted  lines  b  or  c. 


Fig.  96. 

Take  one  of  the  pieces  which  were  sawed  from  Fig.  92,  and 
whose  edges  have  been  rough  planed,  hold  it  on  the  top  of  the 
bench  against  the  planing  pin,  and  clean  one  of  its  sides  with 
the  finishing  plane,  thus  :  — 

Suppose  three  lines  to  be  drawn  lengthwise  on  the  board 
dividing  the  side  in  four  sections,  as  in  Fig.  97.  First  drive 
the  plane  so  as  to  have  the  middle  of  its  blade  cut  along  the 


Fig.  97. 

middle  of  section  A,  then  along  the  middle  of  section  B,  then 
C,  and  lastly  D. 

It  is  possible  that  this  effort  to  plane  may  demonstrate  that 
some  farther  slight  movements  of  the  screw,  a,  and  lever,  b, 
Fig.  89,  are  necessary,  as  the  middle  line  of  the  shaving  ought 
to  come  from  the  middle  point  of  the  blade's  edge. 

The  side  of  the  board  ought  now  to  be  clean.  If  it  is  not, 
repeat  with  four  more  sectional  shavings  when  it  certainly 
should  be.  Do  not  plane  with  fury  and  without  thought,  or 
waste  the  wood,  as  in  Fig.  93. 

Clean  the  opposite  side  of  the  boa'rd  in  like  manner. 


46  ELEMENTARY  WOODWOEK. 

Next  true  the  first  side,  thus :  Provide  each  pupil  with  a 
straight  edge  which  may  be  of  soft  wood  16  in.  X  2  in.  X  tV 
in.  with  both  edges  carefully  straightened  and  parallel.  Test 
the  work  with  this  straight  edge  in  eight  places ;  viz.,  three 
lengthwise  tests,  one  near  each  edge  and  one  along  the  middle, 
as  on  the  dotted  lines,  Fig.  98;  three  crosswise  tests,  one  near 
each  end  arid  one  across  the  middle,  as  on  the  dotted  lines, 
Fig.  99,  and  two  diagonal  tests,  as  in  Fig.  100. 


Fig.  98.  Fig.  99. 

Plane  wherever  these  eight  tests  show  the  surface  to  be 
high,  or,  in  other  words,  plane  the  whole  surface,  following  the 
directions  above  given  for  cleaning  the  surface,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  omitting  to  plane  such  points  as  the  above  eight 
tests  show  to  be  low.  This  may  be  difficult  at  first,  but  the 
difficulty  must  be  mastered.  Write  pupil's  name  on  the  first 
side  when  thus  trued. 

True  the  opposite  side  of  the  board  in  like  manner.  If 
facility  has  been  promptly  acquired,  the  two  sides  will  be 
parallel,  since  they  were  mill  planed  parallel  before  the  pupil 
took  them.  If  the  pupil  has  disturbed  their  parallelism,  it 
must  be  restored  by  setting  the  gauge  to  the  thinnest  corner, 
then  gauging  from  the  first  side  on  both  edges  and  both  ends 
and  planing  to  gauge-lines. 

Treat  all  four  of  the  boards  in  like  manner.  Eapid  work- 
men will  complete  the  four,  and  perhaps  more,  while  slower 
workmen  are  completing  one  or  two. 

When  one  of  the  diagonal  tests  of  Fig.  100  shows  the  board 
to  be  high  in  the  middle  and  the  other  one  shows  it  to 
be  high  in  the  corners,  the  surface  is  said  to  be  "  winding," 
and  the  process  of  planing  it  true  is  called  "  taking  out  the 


EDGE  AND   END   PLANING.  47 

wind."  To  test  long  boards  for  windage,  such  as  two  feet  and 
over,  apply  two  straight  edges,  each  $  in.  thick  X  2  in.  wide, 
one  near  each  end,  and  sight  across  the  top,  as  in  Fig.  101. 


Fig.  100.  Fig.  101. 

Notice  that  in  this  problem  we  have  performed  two  opera- 
tions, first  cleaning  the  surface  and  second  truing  it.  In  the 
first  operation  the  plane  may  be  set  somewhat  coarser  than  in 
the  second,  but  in  both  it  should  be  set  as  fine  as  the  work  to 
be  done  will  allow.  The  grinding  and  oil-stoning  must  at 
present  be  done  by  the  teacher  or  by  some  one  with  skill  to 
do  it. 

If  a  board  to  be  planed  is  wider  or  narrower  than  3  in.,  more 
or  less  than  the  four  sections  mentioned  in  connection  with 
Fig.  97  will  be  needed.  Also  the  width  and  consequent  num- 
ber of  these  sections  will  be  affected  by  the  length  of  straight 
portion  of  the  edge  of  the  plane  blade. 


LESSON   VIII. 

EDGE    AND    END   -PLANING. 

IN  mechanics,  as  in  arithmetic,  there  are  four  fundamental 
rules,  one  or  more  of  which  are  practised  in  every  problem, 
and  no  workman  can  become  a  skilful  operator  without  under- 
standing and  mastering- them.  They  are  as  follows  :  — 

Rule  L     Measure  accurately  according  to  plan.     . 


48 


ELEMENTARY   WOODWORK. 


Rule  II.     Make  perfect  lines. 

Rule  III.     Cut  rapidly  near  to  lines. 

Rule  IV.     Cut  carefully  exactly  to  lines. 

The  present  lesson  illustrates  these  rules  clearly. 

As  in  arithmetic,  multiplication  is  really  a  short  method 
of  performing  uniform  addition,  and  division  a  short  method  of 
performing  uniform  subtraction,  and  thus  the  four  rules  can 
be  considered  analytically  as  two ;  so  in  mechanics  the  above 
first  two  rules  may  be  condensed  into  the  statement :  Lay  out 
work  accurately,  and  the  last  two  into  the  statement :  Work 
to  lines. 

Problem  I.  Edge-Planing.  —  Hold  in  the  vise  one  of  the 
boards  which  were  surface  planed  in  Lesson  VII.,  and  use  the 
finishing-plane  (Fig.  89,  Lesson  VII.)  to  true  one  edge,  thus :  — 

Imagine  a  line  to  be  drawn  along  the  middle  of  the  edge,  as 
in  Fig.  102,  dividing  the  edge  in  two  sections,  A  and  B. 


Fig.  102. 


Fig.  103. 


To  insure  driving  the  plane  so  that  the  middle  point  of  its 
cutting-edge  shall  glide  along  the  middle  of  section  A,  guide 
it  with  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand,  as  in  Fig.  103.  In  this 


EDGE  AND  END  PLANING. 


49 


guiding  the  left  fingers  are  held  under  the  plane  and  in  con- 
tact with  the  wood  as  the  plane  glides  along. 

Take  a  similar  shaving  from  section  B,  and  a  third  one 
along  the  middle  of  the  edge,  imaging  no  line  on  it. 

Test  the  work  with  straight-edge  lengthwise  in  three  places 
as  in  Fig.  98,  Lesson  VII.,  and  with  try-square  crosswise  in 
three  places,  as  in  Fig.  104  below,  and  plane  where  these  tests 
show  the  face  to  be  high.  Remember  the  blade  of  the  plane 
must  be  kept  properly  adjusted,  and  set  as  fine  as  will  do  the 
work  required. 

A  plane  should  never  be  driven  over  a  board  unless  it  cuts, 
as  that  will  dull  it  more  than  the  process  of  cutting,  and  a 
blade  edge  should  never  rest  on  the  board  when  the  plane  is 
being  drawn  back,  as  that  also  will  dull  it. 

Place  a  tried  mark,  as  in  Fig.  105,  on  the  first  side  and  first 
edge  finished,  enclosing  their  common  corner.  This  side  and 
this  edge  are  to  be  worked  from  in  all  future  laying  out. 


Fig.  104.  Fig.  105. 

To  finish  the  second  edge  set  the  gauge  2f  in.,  Rule  I. ; 
gauge  on  both  sides  from  the  finished  edge,  Rule  II. ;  plane 
away  the  surplus  wood  till  the  lines  are  nearly  reached,  using 
the  roughing-plane,  Rule  III. ;  and  then  plane  exactly  to  the 
lines,  using  the  finishing-plane,  Rule  IV.  Test  with  try-square 
just  before  reaching  the  lines,  and  complete  the  planing  as  its 
tests  suggest,  but  do  not  on  any  account  plane  below  the  lines, 
even  though  the  edge  is  not  perfectly  square  with  the  side. 
It  will  be  square,  however,  if  skill  is  acquired  to  make  it  so 
just  before  reaching  the  lines,  and  then  to  keep  it  so  as  the 
lines  are  reached. 


50 


ELEMENT 'ABY    WOODWORK. 


Plane  all  four  of  the  boards  in  like  manner.  Rapid  work- 
men will  finish  the  four  boards,  and  perhaps  make  one  or  two 
more,  while  slower  workmen  are  making  one  or  two  only. 

Problem  II.  End-Planing.  —  Take  one  of  the  boards 
planed  in  Problem  I.,  and  using  the  knife  and  try-square 
as  in  Lesson  IV.,  square  around  £  in.  from  one  end,  as  in 


Fig.  106. 

Tig.  106,  Ride  II.  In  doing  so  always  place  the  beam  of  the 
try-square  against  the  tried  side  or  tried  edge  mentioned  in 
connection  with  Fig.  105.  This  is  to  insure  accurate  work. 

Place  the  board  on  the  saw-block,  as  in  Fig.  107,  and  saw 
very  close  to  the  lines  without  touching  them.     Rule  III. 


Fig.  107. 


Hold  the  work  in  the  vise  and  plane  to  the  lines,  using  the 
block-plane  as  in  Fig.  108,  Rule  IV.  Test  with  try-square 
when  nearly  done  so  as  not  to  plane  beyond  the  lines. 

In  case  it  is  not  yet  possible  for  a  given  pupil  to  saw  suffi- 
ciently near  to  the  lines,  the  wood  remaining  had  better  be 
chipped  away,  as  in  Fig.  109,  and  those  who  are  so  timid  as  to 
saw  far  from  the  line  will  have  to  chip  twice,  the  first  chipping 
being  shown  at  Fig.  110. 


EDGE  AND  END  PLANING. 


51 


Let  us  now  give  more  detailed  instruction  for  this  chipping 
and  planing,  and  explain  Figs.  108  to  111  more  mkiutely. 


Fig.  108. 

In  Fig.  108  the  hands  nearly  cover  up  both  the  plane  and 
the  work ;  but  the  intention  is  to  show  the  palm  of  the  left 


Fig.  109. 


hand  resting  on  the  knob  or  throat  plate  screw  of  the  plane, 
while  the  left  ringers  rest  against  the  edge  of  the  work  far- 


52 


ELEMENTARY   WOODWORK. 


thest  from  the  workman,  and  thus  while  assisting  the  right 
hand  to  drive  the  plane,  give  the  workman  power  to  stop  the 
plane  at  will. 

In  Fig.  109  the  work  is  represented  lying  on  a  chipping- 
block.  Use  the  1  in.  chisel,  utilizing  not  more  than  one-third 
to  one-half  of  its  edge  at  a  stroke,  as  shown  in  the  figure. 
The  unutilized  portion  of  the  edge  will,  at  each  stroke  after 
the  first,  follow  the  cut  made  by  the  preceding  stroke  and  so 
guide  the  chisel.  Let  the  chisel  start  in  the  line,  and  cut  a 
surface  slanting  a  little  to  the  right  so  as  not  to  disturb  the 
line  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  board.  Turn  the  board  over 
and  cut  from  the  line  on  that  side  in  like  manner,  when  the 
end  will  be  crowning,  or  roof  shaped,  as  seen,  exaggerated,  at 
A.  Place  the  board  in  the  vise,  and,  operating  as  in  Fig.  108, 
plane  off  this  crowning  portion  exactly  to  the  lines.  This 
chiselling  and  planing  may  be  called  a  triple  application  of 
Kule  IV. 


c  b      da 


Fig.  111. 


Fig.  110. 


In  Fig.  110  use  only  from  one-third  to  one-half  of  the  chisel- 
edge  at  a  stroke,  as  was  done  in  Fig.  109.  Chip  vertically, 
and  proceed  entirely  across  the  board,  keeping  about  ^  in.  from 


EDGE  AND  END  PLANING.  53 

the  line.  The  work  is  then  ready  to  fully  treat,  as  in  Fig.  109. 
A  skilful  pupil  will  saw  close  to  the  line,  and  to  such  these 
clipping  directions  are  unnecessary  in  this  connection. 

Sometimes  the  amount  of  wood  outside  of  the  lines  is  too 
little  to  saw,  and  would  then  better  be  chipped  away,  instead, 
in  accordance  with  Fig.  110,  making  one  cut  about  £  in.  from 
the  lines,  then  a  second  cut  -fa  in.  from  the  line,  and  finally 
cutting,  as  in  Fig.  109,  and  then  planing  as  before. 

Some  important  differences  exist  between  the  necessities  of 
side  and  edge  planing  on  the  one  hand  and  end-planing  on  the 
other. 

First,  In  side  and  edge  planing  a  shaving  is  usually  taken 
along  the  entire  length  of  the  board,  as  previously  stated.  In 
end-planing  this  must  not  be  done,  since  the  wood  will  be 
splintered  when  the  plane  passes  off,  as  at  A,  Fig.  111.  To 
avoid  this,  plane  a  few  times  from  a,  about  two-thirds  of  the 
way  across  the  end  to  b,  and  then  a  few  times  from  c  to  d, 
thus  alternating  till  the  end  is  complete. 

Second,  When  planing  sides  or  edges,  be  careful  to  hold  the 
plane  parallel  to  the  direction  of  the  shaving,  as  in  Fig.  103. 
When  planing  ends,  it  is  better  to  hold  the  block-plane  at  an 
angle  to  the  direction  of  the  shaving,  as  in  Fig.  108,  more 
clearly  illustrated  in  the  diagram,  Fig.  112,  which  shows  a 
block-plane  commencing  and  finishing  a  stroke. 


Fig.  112. 

Measure  8  in.  from  the  finished  end,  square  around,  saw 
(chisel  if  necessary),  and  plane  to  lines  as  before. 

Treat  all  four  boards  in  like  manner;  though,  as  stated 
before,  rapid  workmen  will  complete  all  four,  and  perhaps 
more,  while  slower  workmen  are  making  but  one  or  two. 


04  ELEMENTARY   WOODWORK. 

Mark  according  to  power  finally  acquired  in  accurate 
planing. 

Problem  IT!.  To  make  a  Bread-Board.  —  For  practice  in 
truing  wider  surfaces  than  the  preceding,  take  a  white  wood 
board  $  in.  thick,  roughly  sawed,  12|-  in.  X  9£  in.,  true  both 
sides,  as  in  Lesson  VII.,  and  both  edges  and  ends  as  in  the 
present  lesson,  making  it  12  in.  X  9  in.  On  one  side  of 
the  board  measure  from  each  corner  3  in.  along  each  edge  and 
2  in.  along  each  end,  and  draw  pencil-lines,  as  in  Fig.  113. 


Fig.  113. 

Square  across  edges  and  ends,  and  make  corresponding  lines 
on  the  opposite  side.     Saw  near  to  and  plane  exactly  to  these 


lines,  thus  observing  all  four  of  the  fundamental  rules.  Cham- 
fer the  corners  as  follows :  Hold  the  work  in  the  vise,  and  with 
fine-set  plane  take  off  the  corners,  making  instead  new  faces 


USE   OF  BIT  AND  BEAD-AWL. 


55 


£  in.  wide  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees  with  the  sides  of  the  board, 
giving  the  finished  work  the  appearance  of  Fig.  114.  The 
larger  view  in  this  figure  is  a  perspective,  and  allows  only  four 
of  the  chamfered  corners  to  show.  The  smaller  view  at  A  is 
a  section. 

Take  a  quarter  of  a  sheet  of  No.  $  sand-paper,  fold  it  over 
a  block,  and  sand-paper  the  completed  work,  without  marring 
any  corners.  This  board  is  a  useful  article  in  the  home  to  lay 
a  loaf  of  bread  on  while  cutting  it. 


LESSON   IX. 

• 

USE    OF    BIT    AND    BRAD-AWL. 

Problem  I.  Boring  across  the  Grain.  —  Take  one  of  the 
boards  8  in.  X  2|  in.  X  $  in-  planed  in  the  last  two  lessons, 
and  set  the  gauge  to  one-half  its  thickness,  thus :  — 

Measure  the  thickness  of  the  board,  set  the  gauge  one-half 
of  the  amount,  and  on  one  edge  of  the  board  gauge  a  point 
from  each  side,  as  in  Fig.  115. 


Fig.  115. 


Fig.  116. 


If  these  points  coincide,  as  at  A,  the  gauge  is  correctly 
adjusted.  If  they  do  not  coincide,  as  at  B,  change  the  gauge 
slightly  and  gauge  two  more  points,  thus  trying  till  they  do 
coincide. 

Gauge  from  the  tried  face  (See  Fig.  105,  Lesson  VIII.)  on 
both  edges  of  the  board,  and  with  the  knife  square  around 


56 


ELEMENT  A  R  Y   WOOD  WORK. 


at  |  in.  from  one  end  and  afterwards  at  every  f  in.,  as  in 
Fig.  116. 

Place  the  board  in  the  vise  with  an  edge  uppermost,  taking 
care  that  it  is  secured  in  a  horizontal  position.  With  one  leg 
of  the  dividers  held  vertically,  press  a  point  at  each  intersec- 
tion of  lines  deep  enough  to  hold  the  spur  of  the  bit. 

Fasten,  the  ^  in.  auger  bit  in  the  bit-brace,  place  its  spur  in 
one  of  these  points,  stand  in  front  of  the  bench,  and  holding 
the  brace  as  in  Fig.  117,  turn  it  two  or  three  revolutions, 
watching  to  see  that  it  stands  vertical  as  viewed  from  that 
position. 


Fig.  118. 


Fig.  117. 


Cease  boring,  move  to  a  position  at  the  end  of  the  bench,  as 
in  Fig.  118,  and  observing  the  above  directions  turn  the  brace 
two  or  three  more  revolutions.  Resume  the  first  position  and 
repeat.  Alternate  thus  between  these  two  positions,  revolving 
the  brace  two  or  three  times  in  each,  taking  great  care  that 


USE  OF  BIT  AND   BEAD-AWL.  57 

the  bit  stands  vertical  as  viewed  from  either  position,  and 
that  it  is  never  pushed  from  or  toward  you,  thereby  disturb- 
ing the  vertical  adjustment  of  the  previous  position.  The 
first  inch  of  depth  in  boring  will  give  direction  to  the  hole. 
It  cannot  be  changed  much  after  that. 

When  the  bit  is  nearly  through  the  board,  place  the  finger 
underneath  at  every  revolution  of  the  brace,  and  when  the 
spur  is  felt,  cease  boring.  Now  turn  the  brace  backward  two 
revolutions  to  loosen  the  spur,  and  then  draw  it  out,  either 
without  revolving  it  at  all,  or  revolving  it  forward.  This  is 
to  clean  the  boring-chips  out  of  the  hole,  for  if  the  bit  is 
revolved  backward  while  it  is  being  withdrawn  the  boring 
chips  will  remain  in  the  hole.  Note  this  and  remember  it. 

Bore  at  every  intersection  of  lines  in  like  manner.  The 
under  side  of  the  work  will  present  a  succession  of  points 
nearly  or  quite  agreeing  with  the  intersection  of  lines  thereon. 

Mark  10  off  from  100  for  every  point  that  varies  \  in.  from 
the  intersection  which  it  should  meet. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  we  have  used  the  smallest  auger  bit, 
though  a  larger  one  is  represented  in  Figs.  .117  and  118,  for  clear- 
ness of  illustration.  We  use  the  £  in.  because  all  the  princi- 
ples involved  can  be  taught  with  it  as  well  as  with  any  size, 
because  greater  care  is  necessary  with  it  than  with  a  larger 
one,  and  because  it  is  found  that  notwithstanding  its  frailty 
the  percentage  of  breakage  is  too  small  to  need  taking  into 
account. 

Problem.  II.  Boring  ivith  the  Grain.  —  Take  another  of 
the  boards  planed  in  the  last  two  lessons,  cut  it  5£  in.  long, 
gauge  midway  of  the  thickness  on  each  edge  and  end,  and 
gauge  at  successive  \\  in.  from  the  tried  edge  (See  Fig.  105, 
Lesson  VIII.  for  definition  of  tried  edge),  on  each  side  and 
end,  as  in  Fig.  119. 

Place  the  work  in  the  vise  with  an  end  uppermost.  It 
should  stand  exactly  vertical,  with  one-half  of  it  buried  in  the 
vise.  Bore  as  directed  in  Figs.  117  and  118  till  one-half  of 


58 


ELEMENTARY   WOODWORK. 


the  spiral  portion  of  the  bit  is  buried  in  the  wood,  as  in 
Fig.  120,  when  the  bit  should  be  withdrawn  to  clean  out  the 
boring-chips  from  the  hole.  Use  the  same  precaution  in 
withdrawing  as  directed  in  Problem  I. 


Fig.  119. 


Fig.  120. 


Fig.  121. 


Insert  the  bit  in  the  hole,  and  bore  till  the  spiral  is  all 
buried,  as  in  Fig.  121,  then  withdraw  as  before. 

Insert  the  bit  in  the  hole,  and  bore  an  inch  deeper  and  with- 
draw, and  so  continue  till  the  bit  comes  through  at  the  lower 
end. 

These  directions  concerning  cleaning  out  chips  must  be 
observed  or  the  bit  will  be  either  broken  or  bent.  If  they  are 
observed,  it  need  never  be  injured. 

Mark  10  off  from  100  for  every  hole  that  comes  out  |  in. 
from  its  proper  intersection. 

Problem.  III.  Boring  from  both  Ends.  —  Take  one  of  the 
boards  planed  in  last  lesson,  gauge  it  as  in  Problem  II.,  and 
bore  it  as  in  that  problem  about  5  in.  deep.  Invert  it  in  the 


USE  OF  BIT  AND  BEAD-AWL. 


59 


vise,  and  bore  from  the  other  end  till  the  holes  meet  mid- 
way. 

Mark  10  off  from  100  for  every  hole  which  you  cannot  see 
through. 

Problem  IV.  Use  of  Drill-Bit. — Take  one  of  the  boards 
planed  in  the  last  two  lessons,  make  it  2  in.  wide,  gauge  and 
square  as  in  Problem  I.,  and  bore  holes  as  in  that  problem, 
using  the  ^  in.  drill-bit.  At  first  this  bit  will  need  no  down- 
ward pressure  beyond  the  weight  of  the  bit-stock ;  but  when 
the  point  of  the  bit  has  descended  half  an  inch  in  the  wood  it 
will  be  necessary  to  hold  back  on  it,  or  it  will  descend  faster 
than  it  can  cut,  and  the  result  will  be  a  small  rough  hole,  and 
perhaps  a  broken  bit.  Note  this  also  and  remember  it. 

Problem  V.  Use  of  Brad-Awl.  —  Take  another  of  the 
boards  planed  in  the  last  two  lessons  or  a  similar  one  ;  gauge 
on  both  sides  at  every  \\  in.,  and  square  around  at  f  in.  from 
one  end,  and  then  at  every  £  in.,  as  in  Fig.  122. 


\  N 

s 

s 

s 

s 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

s:\ 

. 

, 

;  . 

1 

, 

! 

ki\ 

k  - 

^-  J 

^-  - 

t  - 

\ 

, 

"'  \ 

Fig.  122. 


Fig.  123. 


With  medium-sized  awl  bore  from  the  intersection  of  lines 
on  one  side  of  the  board  a  little  more  than  half  way  through, 
as  in  Fig.  123,  then  turn  the  board  over  and  bore  from  the 
intersection  on  the  other  side  to  meet  the  first  bored  holes, 
sighting  from  two  directions  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  as 
in  boring  with  the  auger  bit,  in  order  to  insure  a  vertical  hole. 

Mark  2  off  from  100  for  every  hole  which  you  cannot  see 
through. 


60 


ELEMENTARY   WOODWORK. 


LESSON  X. 

SHOVE-PLANING. 

WOOD  as  thin  as  £  in.  cannot  be  easily  planed  square  on 
edges  and  ends  by  holding  it  in  the  vise,  and  resort  is  had  to 
a  contrivance  known  as  the  shove-plane,  or  shoot-plane  board 
(Fig.  124),  which  may  be  bolted  to  the  front  right  end  of  the 
bench  by  two  carriage-bolts,  one  of  which  is  shown  in  front 
section  in  Fig.  125.  This  arrangement  provides  for  its  being 
quickly  put  in  position  or  removed. 


Fig.  124. 


Fig.  125. 


The  surfaces  A  and  B  are  made  parallel  to  each  other,  and 
the  edges  C  and  D  are  perpendicular  to  them. 

Problem  I.  Finishing  to  a  Width.  -^  Provide  for  each 
pupil  a  J  in.  pine  board  about  5  ft.  long  by  5  in.  wide.  Saw 
from  it  roughly  a  piece  4£  in.  long.  Be  sure  that  the  plane- 
blade  is  finely  set,  as  directed  in  Lesson  VII.  Lay  the  work 
on  the  surface  A,  with  its  end  resting  against  D,  its  edge  over- 
hanging C  about  £  in.  and  hold  it  in  that  position  firmly  with 
the  left  hand  as  in  Fig.  126.  Lay  the  finishing-plane  on  its 
right  side  on  the  surface  B,  and  holding  it  firmly  in  contact 


SH  0  VE-PLANING. 


61 


with  that  surface,  make  with  it  the  least  number  of  strokes 
necessary  to  true  the  edges  of  the  work,  as  in  Fig.  126. 


Fig.  126. 


With  the  help  of  the  rule  set  the  gauge  £  in.  plus,  as  in 
Fig.  127. 


: 


Fig.  127. 

The  help  of  the  rule  is  required  since  the  gauge-point  is 
not  always  accurately  against  the  zero  graduation  of  the 
gauge. 


62  ELEMENTARY  WOODWORK. 

By  the  term  plus  is  meant  a  small  fraction  over  £  in.,  as  is 
seen  iii  Fig.  127,  where  the  gauge-point  does  not  meet  the 
centre  of  the  f  in.  graduation,  but  meets  that  side  of  it  which 
is  farthest  from  zero. 

With  the  gauge  set  as  directed,  gauge  from  the  finished 
edge  on  both  sides  of  the  work,  draw  the  knife-blade  a  few 
times  in  the  gauge-line,  as  in  Fig.  128,  on  both  sides,  and  the 
wood  will  split  apart. 


Fig.  128. 

Shove-plane  the  split  edge  of  the  f  piece  just  enough  to  true 
it,  and  leave  it  f  in.  Again  we  must  press  the  importance  of 
having  the  plane  set  fine.  Let  accurate  workmen  make  as 
many  pieces  f  in.  wide  as  they  have  time,  while  slower  work- 
men are  mastering  the  difficulties  of  making  one  or  two. 

Problem  II.  Finishing  to  a  Length.  —  Take  one  of  the 
pieces  planed  to  a  width  in  Problem  L,  hold  it  as  in  Fig.  129, 
and  plane  an  end,  using  the  block-plane  finely  set. 

In  this  operation  the  face  of  the  block-plane  needs  to  be 
held  against  the  shoulder  C,  and  a  little  more  force  is  used 
with  the  right  hand  to  keep  the  plane  in  contact  with  C  than 
is  used  with  the  left  hand  to  keep  the  work  in  contact  with 
the  plane. 

It  will  be  found  helpful  to  divide  every  shove  of  the  plane 
into  four  actions,  thus  :  — 


SHO  VE-PLANING. 


G3 


First,  Hold  the  plane  very  firmly  against  C  and  B,  with  its 
edge  in  front  of  the  work. 


Fig.  129. 

Second,  Slide  the  work  firmly  against  the  plane,  keeping  it 
in  contact  with  D. 

Third,  Shove  the  plane  forward,  keeping  both  it  and  the 
work  in  place. 

Fourth,  Relax  the  muscles  of  both  hands,  and  bring  the 
plane  back,  ready  to  repeat  the  first  action. 

A  few  shoves  of  the  plane  should  finish  one  end  of  the  work, 
and,  if  the  shove-plane  block  is  in  order,  the  work. will  be  true. 
The  plane,  however,  must,  be  kept  finely  set,  or  the  accuracy  of 
the  shove-plane  board  will  be  destroyed. 

From  the  finished  end  of  the  work  measure  2  in.  plus, 
square  around  using  knife  and  try-square,  saw  near  to  lines 
using  10  in.  back-saw,  and  saw  block  similar  to  Fig.  107, 
Lesson  VIII.,  and  shove  plain  exactly  to  line. 

Finish  several  boards  thus  to  a  length,  and  lay  their  sides 
together,  as  in  Fig.  130.  If  the  work  has  all  been  accurate, 
they  will  agree  with  each  other  in  lengths  and  widths. 


ELEMENT  A  R  Y    WOOD  WOliK. 


Lay  their  edges  together,  as  in  Fig.  131,  and  four  of  them 
will  cover  3  in.  width.     Lay  their  ends  together,  as  in  Fig. 


Fig.  130. 


Fig.  131. 


132,  and  three  of  them  will  make  a  length  of  6  in.,  or  six  of 
12  in. 


V 


Fig  132 


Problem  III.     To  make  from  \  in.  Stock  a  Box  4  in.  X  2  in. 


Fig.  133. 


X  1  in.  Outside  Measure.  —  Make  a  full-sized  drawing,  show- 


SUO  VE-PLANISG. 


65 


ing    three    views    of    the    box,   top,   side,   and    end,    as    in 
Fig.  133. 

From  a  study  of  these  drawings  obtain  the  dimensions  of 
the  bottom  board,  and  also  the  sides  and  ends.  Set  the  figures 
down  in  some  convenient  place.  According  to  the  figures 
make  one  bottom  board,  two  sides  and  two  ends.  Use  $  in. 
No.  20  steel  wire  brads,  and  nail  first  the  sides  and  ends 
together  to  form  a  frame,  putting  two  nails  in  each  end  of  a 
side  piece  spaced  as  in  Fig.  134. 


Fig.  134. 

Nail  the  bottom  to  the  frame,  spacing  the  nails  as  in  Fig. 
135.  Before  nailing  the  sides  and  ends,  however,  hold  them 
together  and  see  if  they  make  a  width  just  equal  to  the 
bottom. 


Fig.  136. 


X 


n. 


Let  accurate  rapid  workmen  make  a  box  5  in. 
X  li  in. 

Problem  IV.  Fig.  136  is  a  full-size  end  view  of  a  box 
whose  frame  has  the  same  dimensions  as  Problem  III.,  and 
which  has  a  chamfered  bottom  of  |-  in.  stock,  and  a  chamfered 
and  rabbited  cover  of  f  in.  stock.  Lay  out  the  chamfer  lines 


66 


ELEMENTARY   WOODWORK. 


on  the  edges  and  ends  of  boards  with  the  gauge.  Lay  out  the 
chamfer  lines  on  the  sides  of  boards  with  pencil,  or  if  gauge 
is  used  make  very  light  lines.  Lay  out  lines  for  rabbit  with 
gauge  where  they  run  lengthwise  of  the  grain,  and  with  try- 
square  and  knife  where  they  run  crosswise  ;  plane  the  cham- 
fers. Cut  the  rabbit  with  the  knife. 


Fig.  136. 

Two  partitions  fitted  as  in  the  half-size  views,  Fig.  137,  will 
divide  the  box  in  three  compartments  convenient  for  holding 
postage-stamps. 


Fig.  137 


SQUARE,  PRISM,   AND  CYLINDER. 


67 


LESSON  XI. 

SQUARE,    PRISM,    AND    CYLINDER. 

Problem  L  Square  Prism  8  in.  X  If  in.  X  If  in.  —  Supply 
each  pupil  with  a  piece  of  l£  in.  planed  pine  plank  8£  in.  long 
X  any  width.  Draw  pencil-lines  lengthwise  on  one  side  of  it 
2  in.  apart.  Square  lines  across  each  end,  and  join  them  by 
lines  on  the  back  side,  as  in  Fig.  138. 


_  L.  -  -  _ 


-4, 


Fig.  138. 

Place  the  work  in  the  vise,  and  saw  on  these  lines.  See 
that  the  saw  keeps  on  the  lines  on  the  back  side  of  the  work 
as  well  as  on  the  front  side.  If  difficulty  is  experienced,  it 
may  be  wise  to  occasionally  turn  the  work  about  in  the  vise, 
so  as  to  bring  that  which  is  the  back  side  to  the  front.  Saw 
at  least  two  pieces.  Eapid  workmen,  if  accurate,  may  saw 
five  or  six. 


68 


ELEMENTARY  WOODWORK. 


Rough-plane  the  two  sawed  sides  of  each  piece  sufficiently 
to  remove  saw-marks,  observing  carefully  all  directions  given 
in  Lesson  VII. 

Finish-plane  one  side  of  a  piece  as  directed  in  connection 
with  Figs.  97-100,  Lesson  VII.,  and  write  your  name  on  it,  as 
in  Fig.  139. 


NAME 


Fig.  139. 

Plane  an  adjacent  side,  following  directions  given  in  Prob- 
lem L,  Lesson  VIII.,  except  imagining  a  division  in  three  sec- 
tions instead  of  two.  When  this  second  side  is  complete, 
place  tried  marks  on  it,  as  in  Fig.  140. 


NAME 


Fig.  HO. 


Set  the  gauge  If  in.  plus,  and  gauge  from  the  first  finished 
side  on  both  of  the  sides  adjacent  to  it,  as  in  Fig.  141. 


1 

_^ 

\ 

NAME 

\ 

Fig.  HI. 


Rough-plane  nearly  to  these  lines,  if  necessary,  Rule  III., 
and  finish-plane  exactly  to  them.  Rule  IV.,  when  a  third 
side  of  the  prism  is  completed. 


SQUARE,   PRISM,    AND   CYLINDER. 


69 


With  the  same  setting  of  the  gauge,  gauge  from  the  second 
finished  side,  and  complete  the  fourth  side  of  the  prism  in 
like  manner.  Use  try-square  and  knife,  and  square  around 
about  £  in.  from  one  end,  as  in  Fig.  142. 


NAME 


Fig.  142. 

Hold  the  work  on  the  saw-block,  as  in  Fig.  107,  Lesson 
VIII.,  and  saw  about  one-third  of  the  way  through.  Turn  it 
one-quarter  of  a  revolution  from  you,  and  saw  likewise.  Turn 
it  another  quarter  and  repeat,  and  still  another  quarter  and 
saw  completely  off.  By  thus  turning  and  partial  sawing,  one 
can  saw  closer  to  the  line  than  otherwise. 

Hold  the  work  in  the  vise,  and  plane,  as  in  Fig.  108,  Lesson 
VIII.  Plane  from  all  four  sides  and  corners  to  and  a  little 
past  the  centre,  observing  Rule  IV. 

From  the  end  so  finished  measure  8  in.  plus,  and  finish  the 
other  end.  Make  three  such  prisms  8  in.  X  If  in-  X  If  in. 

Problem  II.  Octagonal  Prism.  —  Describe  on  drawing-paper 
a  circle  If  in.  diameter,  and  draw  a  square  around  it,  as  in 
Fig.  143. 


Fig.  143. 

Draw  also  the  line  a  b  at  the  angle  of  45°.     The  distance 
a  c  measures  %  in.  plus.     Set  the  gauge  £  in.,  and  gauge  two 


70 


ELEMENTAEY   WOODWORK. 


lines  on  each  of  the  four  sides  of  one  of  the  prisms,  as  in 
Fig.  144. 


Fig.  144. 


Hold  the  work  in  the  vise,  and  plane  to  these  lines,  as  in 
Fig.  145,  when  you  have  an  octagonal  prism. 


\ 


Fig.  145. 

Problem  III.  Cylinder.  —  Make  a  second  octagonal  prism, 
and  exercise  skill  to  so  plane  away  its  corners  as  to  make  a 
16-sided  prism.  Again  plane  away  these  corners  so  as  to  make 
a  32-sided  prism,  then  a  64-sided  prism,  and  sand-paper  it  to  a 
cylinder. 

For  another  method  centre  each  end  of  a  If  in.  square  prism, 
describe  If  in.  circles  thereon,  and  plane  the  corners  away  till 
these  circles  are  reached. 


LESSON  XII. 

USE    OF    CHISEL   AND    GOUGE. 

SOME  instructions  were  given  in  Lesson  VIII.  concerning 
handling  the  chisel  which  are  not  necessary  to  repeat  here. 

Problem  I.  Locked  Joint.  —  Make,  as  in  Lessons  VII.  and 
VIII.,  two  boards  4£  in.  X  2  in.  X  &  in. 


USE  OF  CHISEL  AND  GOUGE. 


71 


Gauge  from  one  edge  of  each  on  both  of  its  sides  f  in. 
Place  points  on  the  edge  at  every  f  in.,  and  through  them, 
square  lines  across  the  edge ;  also  continue  the  lines,  squaring 
011  each  side  as  far  as  to  the  gauged  line,  when  the  work  will 
appear  as  in  Fig.  146. 


Fig.  146. 


Remove  each  alternate  section  by  sawing  near  to  lines  and 
then  chiselling  exactly  to  them,  as  in  Fig.  147. 


Fig.  147. 


When  accurately  made,  the  two  boards  will  fit  together,  as 
in  Fig.  148. 


Fig.  148. 


72 


ELEMENTARY   WOODWORK. 


Problem  II.  Chiselled  Pyramids.  —  Make  a  board  5  in.  X  3 
in.  X  £  in-  On  one  side  of  it  draw  lines  lengthwise  at  every 
£  in.,  using  rule  and  pencil,  and  crosswise  at  every  £  in.,  using 
try-square  and  pencil. 

From  that  side  gauge  •£  in.  on  each  edge  and  end,  and 
square  down  to  these  last  lines  from  the  lines  on  the  top, 
'when  the  work  will  appear  as  in  Fig.  149. 


X  X  X  X  X  X  X  X  XX  X  V 
XXX X XX X \VXX\ 
XXX  X  XX  X  XXX  X  X 


\\\ 


XX  X  \ 


X 


lug.  li'J. 


Make  saw-kerfs  on  alternate  crosswise  lines,  as  in  Fig.  150. 
Draw  necessary  bevelled  lines  on  each  end  at  an  angle  of 


. 

x x x  x xxxxxxx 


Fig.  150. 

45°,  and  chisel   lengthwise   to   them,  giving   the   work  the 
appearance  of  Fig.  151. 


Fig.  151. 


USE  OF  CHISEL  AND   GOUGE. 


73 


With  rule  and  pencil  restore  the  points  that  are  to  be  apices 
of  pyramids.  Make  a  cardboard  templet  to  the  angle  which 
the  base  of  a  pyramid  is  to  make  with  an  edge ;  use  it  to  draw 
necessary  pencil  lines,  and  chisel  V  grooves  crosswise  of  the 
board,  leaving  rows  of  square  pyramids,  as  in  Fig.  152. 


Fig  152. 


Problem  III.  Chamfered  Corners.  —  Make  a  square  prism 
8  in.  X  lj  in-  X  If  in.  Eapid  workmen  may  plane  the  ends. 
Square  around  fine  pencil  lines  1  in.  and  If  in.  from  each  end. 
Set  the  gauge  f  in.,  and  gauge  two  lines  on  every  side  between 
the  two  If  in.  squared  lines,  as  in  Fig.  153.  Join  the  points 
a  and  b. 


Fig.  153. 

Put  a  thin  keen  edge  on  the  1  in.  chisel,  and  cut  to  these 
lines;  as  in  Fig.  154. 

A  corner  cut  away  in  this  manner  is  called  a  chamfer. 
Pupils  who  work  slowly  need  not  plane  this  block  on  the 
end. 


74  ELEMENTARY   WOODWORK. 

Problem  IV.     Use  of  Outside  Ground  Gouge.  —  Repeat  the 


Fig.  154. 

last  problem,  using  |  in.  outside  ground-gouge,  and  give  the 
finished  work  the  appearance  of  Fig.  155. 


Fig.  155. 

Problem  V.  Use  of  Inside  Ground-Gouge  across  the  Grain. 
—  Make  a  board  5f  in.  X  3^  in.  X  f  in.  On  one  side  of  it 
square  knife-lines  across  at  every  f  in.,  and  cut  out  each 


Fig.  156. 

alternate  section  with  the  %  in.  inside  ground-gouge,  making 
semi-cylindrical  grooves,  as  in  Fig.  156. 

Test  the  accuracy  of  the  work  by  using  a  right-triangle. 


HAND-SCREW  AND  SCEEW-DE1VEE.  <o 

The  corner  of  the  try-square  blade  will  answer,  as  in  Fig.  157. 
The  value  of  this  test  depends  on  the  fact  that  every  angle 
inscribed  in  a  semi-circle  is  a  right-angle. 


Fig.  157. 

Problem  VI.  Use  of  the  Inside  Gouge  Lengthwise  of  the 
Grain.  —  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  board  used  in  Problem 
V.,  gauge  lines  at  every  $  in.,  and,  operating  in  a  manner 


\ 


1 


\ 


Fig.  158. 

similar  to    Problem   V.,    make   semi-cylindrical    grooves    in 
alternate  sections,  as  in  Fig.  158. 


LESSON 

HAND-SCREW    AND    SCREW-DRIVER. 

Problem  I.  Adjusting  the  Hand-Screw.  —  The  use  of  the 
hand-screw  is  to  hold  work  in  place  on  the  bench,  or  to  hold 
two  pieces  firmly  together  while  glue  is  drying.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  keep  the  jaws  constantly  parallel,  else  inconvenience 


76 


ELEMEN  TA  R  Y  WO  OD I  YORK. 


will  result  in  adjusting,  or  injury  in  clamping.  If  through 
inadvertence  the  parallelism  of  the  jaws  is  disturbed,  one  of 
the  screws  must  be  turned  independently  of  the  other,  suffi- 
cient to  correct  it.  Fig!  159  shows  a  hand  screw  correctly 
adjusted,  that  is,  with  its  jaws  parallel. 


Fig.  159. 


Set  the  hand-screw  so  that  the  distance  between  the  jaws 
near  the  inner  screw  (see  arrow-heads,  Fig.  159)  shall  measure 
a  given  amount,  as  2  in.  Next  set  it  to  some  other  given 
amount,  as  4  in.  To  do  this,  grasp  the  outer  screw  with  the 
right  hand,  and  the  inner  screw  with  the  left.  Do  not  let 
either  screw  slip  in  the  hand.  Kevolve  the  hand-screw,  causing 
the  upper  portion  to  move  from  you  and  the  lower  portion 
toward  you,  till  you  judge  the  jaws  to  be  4  in.  apart,  then 
lay  the  tool  on  the  bench  and  measure  it.  If  the  measurement 
is  near  4  in.,  make  it  exactly  so  by  turning  the  inner  screw 
without  raising  the  tool  from  the  bench,  but  be  sure  to  turn 
the  outer  screw  at  the  same  time,  so  as  to  keep  the  jaws 
parallel.  Next,  set  the  hand-screw  to  3  in.,  which  will  neces- 
sitate revolving  in  the  opposite  direction. 

In  this  manner  practise  the  class  in  setting  the  hand  screw 
to  various  measurements. 


HAND-SCREW  AND  SCREW-DRIVER. 


77 


Problem  II.  Clamping -Work.  —  Take  two  blocks  4  in.  X 
2  in.  X  I  in.  Place  them  with  their  sides  together,  and  set 
the  clamps  to  hold  them  lightly,  as  in  Fig.  160. 


Fig.  160. 

Next,  tighten  the  grip  by  a  hard  turn  of  the  outer  screw. 

Loosen  the  grip  by  first  loosening  the  outer  screw.  Place 
the  blocks  with  their  edges  together,  as  in  Fig.  161,  and  clamp 
them  in  that  position. 


X        X 


Fig.  161. 


Loosen  again,  and  place  the  blocks  with  their  ends  together, 
as  in  Fig.  162,  and  clamp  them. 


78 


ELEMENTARY   WOODWORK. 


Place  the  blocks  with  the  edge  of  one  to  a  side  of  the  other, 
as  in  Fig.  163  and  clamp  them. 


Fig.  102. 


Fig.  163. 


Place  them  with  the  end  of  one  to  the  side  of  the  other,  as 
in  Fig.  164  and  clamp  them. 

Place  them  with  the  end  of  one  to  the  edge  of  the  other,  as 
in  Fig.  165  and  clamp  them. 


Fig.  164. 


Fig.  165. 


Problem  III.     Screw-Driving.  —  Take  any  two  waste  pieces 
of  $  in.  pine,  8  in.  X  2  in.  will  answer.     On  the  piece  to  be 


Fig.  166. 


used  for  the  npper  board  place  several  points  in  a  zig-zag  line, 
as  in  Fig.  166,  about  %  in.  from  each  edge,  the  points  nearest 
the  ends  being  about  1  in.  therefrom. 


HAND-SCREW  AND   SCREW-DRIVER-  79 

Hold  the  board  in  the  vise.  Use  the  ^  in.  drill-bit,  and 
bore  holes  entirely  through  it.  No  holes  are  needed  in  the 
under  board,  unless  the  screw  is  so  near  an  end  or  edge 
as  to  be  liable  to  split  the  wood,  since  screws  will  turn  into 
soft  pine  on  account  of  their  gimlet  points. 

Insert  a  1^  in.  No.  11  screw  in  each  hole,  and,  placing  the 
boards  together,  turn  down  each  screw  till  its  head  begins  to 
touch  the  wood,  then  press  hard  on  the  driver,  turn  one-half  a 
revolution,  and  release.  The  object  of  this  pressure  is  to  force 
the  screw  into  the  wood,  and  the  release  after  each  semi- 
revolution  is  to  prevent  the  driver  from  slipping  out  of  the 
head  of  the  screw.  Keep  repeating  this  process  till  the  screw 
is  forced  into  the  wood  with  its  top  flush,  or  even,  with  the 
surface  of  the  wood,  as  in  Fig.  167.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
we  did  not  countersink  the  upper  board  for  screw-heads,  as 
they  will  force  into  soft  pine  without  it. 


Fig.  167. 

In  driving  No.  11  screws  into  hard  wood  it  is  necessary  to 
bore  with  the  •£$  in.  drill-bit  into  the  under  piece,  and  to  coun- 
tersink the  upper.  It  is  also  well  to  put  tallow  on  the  screw 
when  about  to  turn  it  into  hard  wood. 

To  recapitulate :  A  screw  requires  a  hole  slightly  larger  than 
itself  through  the  first  board,  no  hole  in  the  second,  if  soft 
wood,  unless  too  near  'the  end  or  edge,  but  a  hole  in  the  second 
board,  if  it  be  hard  wood,  just  large  enough  to  prevent  the 
screw  from  being  broken  by  the  force  required  to  drive  it.  Also 
the  upper  board  if  hard  wood  needs  to  be  countersunk  for  the 
screw-head,  while  if  soft  wood  it  does  not. 


80 


ELEMENTARY   WOODWORK. 


LESSON  XIV. 

TO    MAKE   A   PAIR   OF    SCALES. 

IT  is  both  profitable  and  interesting  to  close  a  series  of 
elementary  lessons  by  making  some  project  or  article  of  use. 
This  lesson  will  describe  one  such  article,  and  Lesson  XV. 
another.  Fig.  168  is  a  perspective  view  of  a  pair  of  scales 
which  the  average  pupil  can  make  sufficiently  accurate  to 
answer  the  purpose  of  weighing  letters  and  papers  for  mail. 


Fig.  169  shows  three  orthographic  views  of  it,  one-fifth  size. 
This  would  make  the  base  a,  8  in.  X  4  in.  X  i  in. ;  the  post  b, 
1  in.  X  &  in.  X  %  in. ;  the  beam  c,  10  in.  X  i  in.  X  i  in. ;  and 
the  pans  d,  each  4  in.  X  4  in.  X  \  in.  Fig.  170  is  a  sectional 
view  of  a  portion  of  the  base,  full  size,  with  the  post  mortised 
into  it.  Fig.  171  is  a  quarter  size  elevation  and  plan  of  the 
post,  having  a  tenon  on  the  lower  end,  a  uniform  chamfer  on 
the  top,  and  a  bevelled  chamfer  along  most  of  its  length, 
though  any  other  design  for  ornamentation  will  answer  just 
as  well. 


TO  MAKE  A   PAIR    OF  SCALES. 


81 


Fig.  169. 


Fig.  171. 


Fig.  170, 


o^  ELEMENTARY   WOODWORK. 

Fig.  172  is  a  full-size  plan,  front  and  end  elevations  of  a 
portion  of  the  beam  showing  places  cut  away  on  each  side,  to 


Pig.  \TZ. 


prevent  friction  of  the  cords  which  suspend  the  pans. 

Fig.  173  is  a  full-size  view  of  one  corner  of  a  pan,  showing 
the  hole  in  which  the  cord  is  tied.  This  hole  may  be  \  in. 
from  an  end  of  the  pan  and  \  in.  from  an  edge. 


Fig.  173. 

When  the  parts  are  all  made  and  sand-papered  smooth,  glue 
the  tenon  of  the  post  in  'the  mortise  of  the  base,  and  then, 
using  a  camel-hair  brush  about  1£  in.  wide,  put  a  coat  of  thin 
shellac  on  all  of  the  parts.  Let  this  dry  a  few  hours,  sand- 
paper it  sufficiently  to  smooth  all  roughness,  and  apply  a 
second  coat  of  thin  shellac.  Thin  shellac  is  specified  because, 
if  it  be  applied  too  thick,  a  patched  surface  will  be  the  result. 
No  harm  need  result  from  too  thin  shellac,  as,  in  that  case,  a 
third  coat  may  be  applied. 

Shellac  dries  very  fast,  and,  in  applying  it,  take  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  of  it  in  the  brush  to  cover  the  wood  in  any 
given  place  at  the  first  stroke,  and  do  not  make  a  second 
stroke  in  any  given  place  if  possible.  Lastly,  tie  on  the 


TO  MANE  A  PAIR    OF  SCALES. 


83 


cords  and  put  in  the  nail  for  the  beam  to  swing  on.  The 
hole  in  the  beam  for  the  nail  on  which  it  swings,  and  the 
groove  in  the  post  for  the  beam  to  play  in,  must  both  be 
of  ample  dimensions  to  guarantee  no  friction.  Care  is 
needed  to  tie  the  cords  of  uniform  length.  To  facilitate 
this  make  a  fixture,  as  in  Fig.  174. 


Fig.  174. 

This  consists  of  a  base  a,  standard  b,  cleat  c,  and  two 
buttons  d,  all  of  £  in.  pine.  By  means  of  this  fixture  the 
beam  and  pans  are  held  in  proper  relative  position  while 
the  cords  are  being  tied. 

Fig.  175  shows  an  end  view  of  the  beam  with  a  cord  whose 
centre  lies  in  the  hole,  and  whose  halves  are  then  tied  when 
the  two  ends  can  be  attached  to  corners  of  a  pan.  Fig.  176 
shows  two  such  cords  tied  in  one  hole,  leaving  four  projecting 
ends. 

Care  must  be  taken  to  have  the  holes  in  the  ends  of  the 
beam,  where  the  strings  are  tied,  equidistant  from  the  hole 
in  the  centre  of  the  beam. 

When  the  work  is  put  together,  if  one  pan  proves  to  be 
heavier  than  the  other,  trim  it  till  they  are  alike. 


&4  ELEMENTARY   WOODWORK. 

For  a  poise,  bind  four  10  d.  wire  nails  in  a  bundle  by  means 


Fig.  175.          «  Fig.  176. 

of  two  pieces  of  No.  19  soft  iron  wire,  each  6£  in.  long,  as  in 
Pig.  177,  and  the  whole  will  weigh  one  ounce.     Place  this 


Fig.  177. 


Fig.  178. 


TO  MAKE  A   BEVELLED  BOX  OR   CARD-RECEIVER.    85 

poise  in  one  pan  of  the  scales,  and  a  sealed  letter  in  the  other. 
If  the  letter  rises,  the  U.  S.  mail  will  carry  it  to  its  destination 
for  two  cents.  If  it  balances,  or  falls,  they  will  ask  more. 

If  desired,  a  neat  set  of  poises  can  be  made  of  cast-iron. 
Fig.  178  shows  three  drawn  full  size. 

These  need  to  be  cast  a  small  fraction  too  heavy,  and  then 
filed  to  exact  weight,  being  tested  by  accurate  sensitive  scales, 
each  pupil  filing  and  testing  his  own. 


-'      LESSON   XV. 

TO    MAKE    A    BEVELLED    BOX    OR    CARD-RECEIVER. 

IN  this  lesson,  we  will  treat  of  surfaces  which  are  bevelled 
with  respect  to  each  other,  and  for  a  project  make  a  box  with 
bevelled  sides. 

Problem  I.     The  Bevelled  Joint.  —  Fig.  179  is  two  views, 


Fig.  179. 


Fig.  180. 


86 


ELEMENTARY   WOODWORK. 


a  plan  and  elevation  of  the  joint  to  be  made.  Fig.  180  is  a 
perspective  view. 

Draw  the  plan  and  elevation  full  size,  and  the  slant  height, 
B  C  will  be  found  to  be  3-^V  in. 

According  to  instructions  given  in  Lessons  VII.  and  VIII., 
finish  a  board  10  in.  X  3?V  in-  X  £  in. 

On  a  waste  board  having  a  true  edge,  E  B,  Fig.  181,  draw 
the  line  A  D  square  with  the  edge,  make  the  distances  A  C 
=  3  in.,  A  B  =  1  in.,  and  draw  the  line  B  C,  which  will 
in. 


£ 


Fig.  181. 


Fig.  182. 


Set  the  bevel  to  this  line,  as  in  Fig.  182,  and  plane  one  edge 
of  the  10  in.  X  3-$r  in.  board  to  fit  the  bevel  so  set.  The  work 
will  appear  as  in  the  outlines  of  Fig.  183,  which  shows  two 
views  of  it. 


Fig.  183. 

On  the  waste  board,  Fig.  181,  make  a  second  standard  angle 
Toy  making  A  E  =  1  in.  and  A  F  =  3^  in.,  and  drawing  E  F. 
Set  the  bevel  to  this  second  standard  angle,  use  it  to  draw  the 
two  bevelled  lines  shown  in  Fig.  183,  continue  these  lines 


TO   MAKE  A   BEVELLED  BOX  OB   CARD-RECEIVER.   87 

square  across  the  bevelled  edge  of  the  work,  use  the  bevel  on 
the  back  side  of  the  work,  and  finish  by  drawing  such  lines  as 
are  required,  having  a  direction  of  their  own  on  the  squared 
edge.  Saw  near  to  the  lines,  plane  exactly  to  them,  and  Fig. 
183  will  appear  as  Fig.  184. 


Fig.  184. 

Brad-awl  three  holes  in  the  longer  piece  L,  giving  them  a 
direction  parallel  to  the  bevelled  end  and  edge,  and,  using 
2  in.  No.  13  steel-wire  finish  nails,  nail  it  to  the  shorter  piece 
S.  Cut  away  the  small  portion  of  L  that  now  stands  above 
the  plane  of  the  upper  edge  of  S,  and  the  work  will  appear  as 
in  Fig.  180. 

Fold  a  small  piece  of  No.  %  sand-paper  over  a  small  block, 
and  sand  the  work,  being  careful  not  to  disturb  the  corners. 
Apply  a  coat  of  clean,  thin  shellac,  using  a  camel's-hair  brush 
about  1£  in.  wide.  Let  it  dry  an  hour  or  more,  sand  off  all 
roughness,  and  apply  a  second  coat  of  shellac. 


Fig.  185. 

Problem  II.  The  Bevelled  Box.  —  Fig.  185  is  a  perspective 
view  of  the  bevelled  box  which  is  made  from  f  in.  white  wood. 
Fig.  186  is  three  orthographic  views. 


88 


ELEMENTARY   WOODWORK. 


Draw  an  elevation  of  the  angle  full  size,  as  in  Fig.  187,  and 
the  slant  height  will  be  found  to  be  2£  in. 


\t----lSin.      ------* 

X 

rf 

OS 

\ 

Fig.  186. 


Make  from  f  in.  white  wood  two  side-pieces  12|-  in.  rough 
length  X  2£  in.  finish  width,  and  two  end-pieces  8  in.  rough 
length  X  2J  in.  finish  width. 

Take  a  waste  board  and  lay  out  on  it  two  standard  angles, 
as  in  Fig.  188.  Make  ab  =  1  in.,  and  ac  =  2  in.  Set  the 


Fig.  187. 


Fig.  188. 


bevel  to  the  line  be,  and.  bevel  the  under  edge  of  both  side- 
pieces  and  both  end-pieces.  Make  ae  =  1  in.,  and  «/=  2|  in., 
set  the  bevel  to  the  line  ef,  and  lay  out  both  ends  of  the  four 
pieces,  in  a  manner  similar  to  Problem  I.,  making  the  two  side- 
pieces  each  12  in.  long  on  the  upper  or  square  edge,  and  the 
two  end-pieces  1\  in.  long  on  the  upper  or  square  edge.  Saw 
near  to  the  lines,  and  plane  exactly  to  them. 


TO  MAKE  A   BEVELLED  BOX  OR   CARD-RECEIVER.    89 


Brad-awl  three  holes  in  each  end  of  the  side-pieces,  in  a 
manner  similar  to  Problem  I.,  and  nail  the  four  finished  pieces 
together  with  1-|  in.  Xo.  16  steel-wire  brads.  Trim  off  the  slight 
projections  on  each  of  the  four  upper  corners,  as  was  done  in 
Problem  I.  Use  a  22-in,  iron  jointer  to  make  the  lower  edge 
of  the  frame  more  true.  Make  a  board  as  long  and  as  wide  as 
the  lower  edge  of  the  frame  ;  on  the  upper  side  of  this  board 
scribe  a  line  y\  in.,  or  one-half  of  the  thickness  of  the  stock, 
from  each  end  and  from  each  edge,  as  in  Fig.  189. 


Fig.  189. 


Fig.  192. 


Bore  three  holes,  the  first  one  being  an  inch  from  the  end, 
on  each  of  these  lines,  using  the  bevel  set  to  the  angle  gbc, 
Fig.  188,  and  located  as  in  Fig.  189  to  give  direction  to  the 
awl.  While  doing  this,  keep  the  work  on  a  waste  board. 


Fig.  190. 


Make  for  the  partition  or  handle  a  £  white  wood  board  12 
in.  rough  length  X  3J  in.  finish  width.  Place  it  on  the  box, 
as  in  Fig.  190,  and  placing  the  try-square  as  in  that  figure,  make 


90  ELEMENTARY   WOODWORK. 

a  knife-point  on  the  under  edge  of  the  work.  Repeat  at  the 
other  end.  The  distance  between  these  points  is  the  length 
of  the  bottom  of  the  box  inside.  From  these  points  square 
across  the  under  edge  of  the  partition.  With  the  bevel  set 
by  one  end  of  the  box,  inside,  finish  laying  out  one  end  of  the 
partition,  then  set  the  bevel  by  the  opposite  end  of  the  box, 
and  lay  out  the  other  end  of  the  partition.  Saw  near  to  the 
lines,  and  plane  exactly  to  them.  The  partition  will  appeUr 
as  in  the  outline  of  Fig.  191. 

d     c      e 


Fig.  191.  Fig.  193. 

Find  the  middle  point  of  the  lower  edge,  and  square  up 
from  it  a  fine  pencil-line  on  one  side  of  the  board.  Set  the 
gauge  1  in.,  and  gauge  from  the  upper  edge  of  the  board  on 
the  same  side  a  line  about  1£  in.  each  way  from  the  squared 
line.  From  the  intersection  of  these  lines,  measure  l£  in.  each 
way,  and  place  two  points  on  the  gauge-line,  as  in  Fig.  191. 
With  these  three  points  as  centres,  bore  with  the  f  in.  auger- 
bit  three  holes  as  shown  by  the  circles  on  Fig.  191,  till  the  spur 
of  the  bit  is  felt  on  the  back  side  of  the  work,  then  turn  the 
work  over  and  bore  from  these  points  to  meet  the  first  boring. 
Set  the  gauge  to  agree  with  the  upper  and  with  the  lower 
edges  of  the  bored  holes  successively,  and'  gauge  lines  on  both 
sides.  Cut  to  these  lines  with  the  small  blade  of  the  knife 
and  round  the  edge  of  the  cutting,  as  in  the  end  view, 
Fig.  192,  page  89. 

Place  the  partition  in  position  in  the  box,  and  make  pencil- 
points  at  a  and  b,  Fig.  193,  where  the  upper  edge  of  each  end- 
piece  of  the  box  meets  the  partition.  From  c  measure  If  in. 
each  way  on  the  upper  edge  of  the  partition,  and  place  points 


GRINDING-TOOLS.  91 

at  d  and  e.  Draw  the  lines  ad  and  be,  saw  near  to  them,  and 
plane  exactly  to  them.  Round  the  edge  adeb,  as  in  the  end- 
view  of  it,  Fig.  192. 

Nail  the  partition  in  place,  using  two  1-in.  No.  18  steel-wire 
brads  in  each  end,  and  three  in  the  bottom. 

Sand-paper  the  box,  being  careful  of  the  corners.  Stain  it 
a  neat  cherry  color,  using  burnt  sienna  thinned  with  turpen- 
tine, applied  with  a  bristle  brush,  and  rubbed  off  with  cloth. 
After  drying  a  fe\V  hours,  shellac  it  as  the  joint  was  done. 

Shellac  may  be  used  without  staining,  or  the  box  may 
receive  two  coats  of  furniture  varnish.  If  varnish  is  used, 
rub  the  first  coat,  when  it  has  dried  hard,  with  pumice  and 
oil  instead  of  sand-paper. 


LESSON  XVI. 

GKINDING-TOOLS. 

THE  power  of  sharpening  tools  is  superior  to  the  power  of 
using  them;  and  though  a  few  pupils  may  acquire  it  early  in 
their  practice  of  using  tools,  the  majority  of  grammar  pupils 
will  need  assistance  from  the  teacher  for  some  time,  yet  class 
instruction  should  be  given,  and  individual  practice  had.  To 
accomplish  this,  provide  half  a  dozen  cheap  1-in.  shank  chisels. 
Have,  if  possible,  at  least  three  grindstones,  though  one  can 
be  made  to  answer.  One  reason  for  mentioning  three  is  that 
much  grinding  may  be  done,  and  another  is  that  one  stone 
may  be  kept  for  each  of  three  varieties  of  work;  viz.,  a  coarse 
stone  for  plane  blades  and  wide  chisels,  where  much  stock 
needs  to  be  removed ;  a  finer  one  for  narrow  chisels  and  knife- 
blades,  and  a  third  stone,  also  fine,  for  outside  ground  gouges. 
The  inside  grou/id  gouges  need  an  emery-wheel  to  grind  them. 
Their  use,  however,  in  these  lessons  can  be  dispensed  with. 


92 


ELEMENTAR  Y   WO  OD  WORK. 


All  three  stones  may  be  used  for  chisels  and  planes  indis- 
criminately when  necessary,  if  kept  trued,  but  the  third  stone 
is  mentioned  for  gouge-grinding,  as  gouges  make  such  grooves 
in  a  stone  as  to  make  it  exceedingly  difficult,  if  not  impossi- 
ble, for  an  amateur  to  use  it  for  planes.  For  the  coarse  stone, 
the  quarry  at  Norwalk,  0.,  is  excellent.  For  the  finer  ones, 
nothing  excels  Nova  Scotia  stone. 


Fig.  194. 


Make  a  rest  to  support  the  chisel-handle  or  the  upper  end 
of  a  plane-blade  while  grinding.  It  will  prove  a  great  con- 
venience, as  it  makes  the  work  easier,  expedites  it,  and  in- 
sures accuracy.  An  excellent  device  for  this  purpose  is  shown 
in  Fig.  194,  where  a  chisel  is  held  in  position  for  grinding. 


GRINDING-TOOLS. 


93 


The  device  is  adjustable  to  hold  any  length  of  tool,  from  the 
shortest  plane-blade  to  the  longest  chisel.  Fig.  195  is  a  side 
view  illustrating  it  more  clearly.  The  rest  pivots  at  A,  while  a 
slot  and  thumb-screw  at  B  on  each  side  give  it  adjustment  and 
secure  it.  From  a  faucet  in  the  copper  pail  at  C,  a  stream  of 
water  of  any  needed  size  can  be  allowed  to  run:  Aqueduct 
water,  if  available,  will  be  more  convenient.  The  smaller  this 
stream  the  better ;  and,  if  it  can  be  made  to  drop  instead  of 
run,  it  will  be  best.  Have  a  box  under  the  stone  to  catch 
waste  water,  and,  if  possible,  a  pipe  to  conduct  from  the  box 
to  a  sewer. 


Fig.  195. 

Do  not  hold  a  tool  on  a  stone  in  one  position  continuously, 
as  that  tends  to  wear  away  the  stone  at  that  place,  and  conse- 
quently makes  a  groove  in  it.  It  also  tends  to  make  the  edge 
of  the  tool  irregular  by  its  conforming  to  the  irregularities  of 
the  stone.  Keep  the  tool  moving  slowly  to  the  right  and 
left,  as  shown  by  dotted  lines  in  the  plan  view,  or  diagram, 
Fig.  196. 


94 


ELEMENTARY   WOODWORK. 


A  chisel  may  be  swung  to  right  and  left,  pivoting  on  the 
end  of  the  handle  at  A,  where  it  is  supported  on  the  rest ;  but 


Fig.  196. 


a  plane-blade  needs  to  be  moved  bodily,  as  shown  by  dotted 
lines,  Fig.  197. 


Fig.  197. 


GBINDING-TOOLS. 


95 


There  is  a  natural  tendency  to  use  the  middle  of  the  face  of 
a  stone,  as  in  the  plan  view,  or  diagram,  Fig.  198. 

The  result  of  this  is  that  most  any  stone  in  use  will  be 
found  to  have  a  hollowed  face,  as  in  the  elevation,  Fig.  199. 


Pig.  198. 


Fig.  199. 


To  obviate  this  as  much  as  possible,  always  use  the  portion 
near  one  edge,  as  in  Fig.  196  or  197,  when  you  can. 

In  the  process  of  grinding,  particles  of  steel  worn  off  from 
the  tool  fill  the  pores  of  the  stone,  and  its  surface  becomes 
glossed  so  that  it  will  not  cut  the  tool  readily.  This  will 
happen  to  any  grindstone  after  an  hour's  constant  use,  and 
must  be  scraped  off.  as  in  Fig.  200,  using  for  the  purpose  a 
bar  of  soft  iron,  preferably  1  in.  X  fV  in-  ^  W*H  seem 
strange  to  the  uninitiated  that  a  bar  of  soft  iron  should  be 
used  for  this  purpose  instead  of  steel,  but  such  is  the  fact. 

Not  more  than  two  or  three  minutes  are  needed  for  this 
duty,  and  it  is  surprising  to  note  the  difference  in  the  cutting 
quality  of  the  stone  before  and  after  the  scraping. 

When  the  face  of  a  stone  becomes  so  much  out  of  true  that 
a  plane-blade  cannot  be  ground  on  it,  it  must  be  trued  either 
by  means  of  a  piece  of  flat-iron  or  gas-pipe  handled  by  a 


96 


ELEMENTARY   WOODWORK. 


skilful  operator  in  a  manner  similar  to  Fig.  200,  or  preferably 
by  means  of  some  one  of  the  truing  devices  which  can  be 
purchased  and  kept  for  the  purpose. 


Fig.  200. 

The  form  of  the  edge  of  different  planes  has  been  shown  at 
Figs.  84  and  85. 

The  edge  of  a  chisel  should  be  ground  straight  as  from  a 
to  b  in  Fig.  201. 

After  properly  grinding  a  tool,  put  a 
smoother  edge  on  it  by  means  of  an  oil- 
stone.    For  common  wood-working  tools 
the  article  known  as  "  Washita  Stone  "  is 
Fig.  201.  excellent.      "  Arkansas   Stone "   is   more 

expensive,  having  finer  grain.  It  is  specially  adapted  for 
small  and  fine-cutting  tools.  Fig.  202  is  a  side  view  of  a 
chisel  resting  on  a  stone  as  it  should  in  the  act  of  stoning  it. 
Keep  the  bevel  of  the  tool  in  contact  with  the  face  of  the 
stone,  and  then  so  strain  the  muscles  that  the  front  edge  a 
shall  be  stoned  without  stoning  the  rear  portion  b. 


GEINDING-TOOLS.  97 

Some  stoning  is  necessary  with  the  tool  held  flat  side  down, 


Fig.  202. 

as  in  Fig.  203.     Kead  also  directions  in  connection  with  Fig. 
48  concerning  feather  edges  which  sometimes  occur. 


Fig.  203. 

Grinding  and  stoning  lessons  may  be  given  to  sections  of 
the  class  at  any  convenient  time  or  times  during  the  course 
of  lessons. 

After  one  of  the  cheap  chisels  mentioned  has  been  put  in 
gOod  cutting  order  by  a  pupil,  by  grinding  and  oilstoning,  it 
may  be  purposely  dulled  by  striking  the  edge  a  few  times 
with  the  peen  hammer,  and  another  pupil  can  then  take  a 
lesson  in  grinding  it.  After  such  nicking,  whether  purposely 
or  accidentally  done,  place  the  chisel  in  a  vertical  position  on 
the  stone,  as  in  Fig.  204,  and  grind  the  nicks  out,  then  grind 


Fig.  204. 


98 


ELEMENTARY   WOODWORK. 


as  in  Fig.  194  to  produce  a  new  edge.  Pupils  who  succeed 
with  this  experimental  grinding  can  be  trusted  to  put  the 
regular  tools  in  order  when  necessary. 

There  is  the  same  natural  tendency  to  use  the  middle  por- 
tion of  the  face  of  an  oilstone  as  of  the  grindstone,  and  the 
same  constant  endeavor  is  therefore  needed  to  use  portions 
near  the  ends  and  edges.  When  the  surface  of  an  oilstone 
becomes  so  untrue  that  planes  cannot  be  stoned  on  it,  tack  a 
piece  of  No.  1^  sand-paper  on  a  trued  board,  lay  the  oilstone 
on  it  face  downward,  and  slide  it  in  circular  movements  till  it 
is  sanded  true.  Time  will  be  needed  for  this  duty,  and  if  the 
oilstone  is  much  wornj  several  sheets  of  paper  will  be  used.- 

A  contrivance  better  than  the  sand-paper  is  a  planed  iron 
plate  12  in.  square  by  ^  in.  thick.  Put  half  a  thimbleful  of 
No.  90  emery  on  this  plate,  place  the  oilstone  on  it,  and 
slide  it  with  circular  movements  till  the  emery  ceases  to  cut, 
which  can  be  known  by  the  sound,  and  then  clean  off  the 
dust  produced,  and  put  on  more  emery.  Each  application  of 
emery  and  grinding  with  it  will  occupy  a  moment  or  two,  and 
the  complete  truing  of  the  stone  will  occupy  from  fifteen 
minutes  to  an  hour  according  to  the  amount  of  grinding  needed. 

To  grind  a  knife  requires  more  skill  than  to  grind  a  chisel 
or  plane,  because  its  narrow  blade  furnishes  so  little  conven- 
ience to  rest  it  accurately. 

In  grinding  it,  let  but  a  small  portion  of  the  length  of  the 
blade  be  in  contact  with  the  stone  at  a  time,  as  in  the  front 


Fig.  205. 

view,  Fig.  205,  but  keep  the  knife  constantly  moving  back  and 
forth  in  the  direction  of  its  length,  as  indicated  by  the  dotted 
lines. 


GRINDING-TOOLS. 


99 


The  position- Fig.  205  applies  to  grinding  the  straight  por- 
tion of  the  blade,  that  is  from  a  to  b,  Fig.  206. 


Fig.  206. 


To  grind  the  portion  of  the  blade  from  b  to  c,  hold  it  on 
the  stone  as  in  Fig.  207,  giving  it  a  continuous  longitudinal 
and  rocking  motion,  necessitated  by  its  shape. 


Fig.  207. 

For  directions  concerning  oilstoning  the  knife,  see  in  con- 
nection with  Figs.  46  to  48. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  foregoing  lessons  give  practice 
in  using  every  tool  or  class  of  tools  in  the  set  enumerated, 
under  the  head  of  Equipment,  pages  5  and  6,  and,  if  thor- 
oughly mastered,  they  will  insure  a  complete  elementary 
knowledge  of  hand  woodwork,  enabling  an  interested  student 
to  manufacture  any  simple  article  by  applying  the  principles 
learned. 


p 


THE        HEOGRAPHICAL 
**  READERS 


In  Four  Fully  Illustrated  Volumes 

By  CHAS.  F.  KING 

Master  Dearborn  Grammar  School,  Boston  ;  President  National  Summer  School, 
Saratoga  Springs;  Author  of  "  Methods  and  Aids  in  Geography" 

First  Book:    HOME  AND   SCHOOL. 

240  pages.      Over  125  Illustrations.      Price,  50  cents  net.      By  mail,  56  cents. 

Second  Book:   THIS   CONTINENT  OF  OURS. 

320  pages.      Fully  Illustrated,      Price,  72  cents  net.     By  mail,  83  cents. 

Third  Book:  THE  LAND  WE  LIVE  IN.    Part  I. 

840  pages.     15S  Illustrations.    Price,  36  cents  net.     By  mail,  64  cents. 

Fourth  Book:    LAND  WE  LIVE  IN.    Part  II. 

240  pages.     150  Illustrations.     Price,  56  cents  net.     By  mall,  64  cents. 

True  concepts  of  real  geography  can  only  be  formed  through  travel  or  from 
pictures.  Travelling  is  costly  ;  but  an  excellent  and  accurate  substitute  is  found 
in  the  pictures  produced  by  the  photographic  camera.  The  photographer  has 
been  round  the  world  and  made  his  report.  We  call  upon  him  to  aid  us  in  tell- 
ing others  what  he  has  seen. 

Supplementary  reading  is  in  great  demand,  but  only  books  which  combine  the 
useful  with  the  interesting  are  worthy  of  being  introduced  into  the  school-room. 

The  four  volumes  of  the  Picturesque  Readers  now  in  course  of  preparation  are 
not  only  intensely  interesting,  but  they  contain  all  the  "  Essentials  of  Geography  " 
in  so  compact  and  vivid  a  form  that  they  can  be  read  by  a  bright  child  of  ten  in  a 
year  as  supplementary  reading  in  school,  or  at  home  in  a  few  weeks,  thus  meeting 
the  great  demand  "for  less  time  in  geography." 

We  call  attention  to  the  following 

POINTS  O-F  SUPERIORITY 

1  Ample  use  of  pictures  —  over  100  large  and  elegant  pictures  in  Vol.  i.    600 

illustrations  in  the  series. 

2  All  pictures    made    from    photographs,  photographic    slides,   French  and 

English  designs,  or  by  the  best  American  artists. 

3  Written  in  narrative  style. 

4  Language  adapted  to  children's  comprehension. 

5  Carefully  prepared  by  personal  narrative,  wise  selection,  and  adaptation. 

6  Equally  well  adapted  for  home  reading  and  school  purposes. 
Tf  Properly  graded  for  the  different  classes  in  grammar  schools. 

8  Containing  a  vast  amount  of  information  for  old  and  young,  for  teacher  and 

taught. 

9  A  happy  combination  of  the  useful  and  interesting. 

10  From  these  readers  can  be  easily  taught  Geography,  Reading,  Spelling, 

Dictation,  and  Composition. 

11  All  mere  map  explanations  and  descriptions  carefully  avoided. 

12  Costly  in  preparation,  but  cheap  in  price. 

13  These  books  can  be  used  in  place  of,  or  in  connection  with,  geographies. 

14  These  fascinating  geographical  readers  will  take  th«  place  of  the  stupid  sets 

of  map  questions  and  columns  of  statistics. 

LEE  AHD  SHEPARD  PnlMers  10  Mill  Street  BOSTON 


METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGEAPHY 

FOE  THE  USE  OF  TEACHERS  AND  NORMAL 
SCHOOLS 

BY 

CHARLES  F.  KING 

HEAD  MASTER  OF  THE  DEARBORN   SCHOOL  AND  FORMERLY   SUB- 
MASTER  OF  THE  LEWIS  GRAMMAR  SCHOOL,  BOSTON 

t          CLOTH  ILLUSTRATED   $1.20  NET,  BY  MAIL  $1.38 

Professor  THOMAS    M.   BALXIET,   Superintendent  of  Public 
Schools,   Springfield,  Mass.,  writes  : 

"  '  Methods  and  Aids  in  Geography '  contains  by  far  the  fullest  and  most 
complete  treatment  of  devices,  means  of  illustration,  etc.,  in  teaching 
geography  of  any  book  on  the  subject  I  have  ever  seen.  The  chapter  on 
'  Sources  of  Information  and  Illustration '  will  be  worth  to  me  many  times 
the  price  of  the  book.  Its  treatment  of  the  literature  of  the  subject  is 
well-nigh  exhaustive.  The  book  represents  wide  reading  and  contains  so 
much  information  on  geography,  apart  from  methods  of  teaching  the 
subject,  that  it  will  obviate  the  necessity  of  purchasing  a  nuir*)er  of 
books  otherwise  indispensable." 

Superintendent  SAMUEL  T.  DUTTON  of  New  Haven,  Conn., 
•writes : 

"  The  work  seems  to  me  eminently  calculated  to  help  teachers  to  over- 
come some  of  their  greatest  difficulties.  It  bristles  on  every  page  with 
helpful  suggestions.  The  plan  of  instruction  is  based  upon  sound 
and  approved  principles.  Hereafter  there  will  be  np  excuse  for  humdrum 
work  in  geography." 

Prof.  T.   B.   PRAT,   State   Normal    School,  Whitewater,    Wis., 
writes  : 

"  I  have  been  very  greatly  pleased  to  find  the  high  reputation  of  Prof. 
King  so  well  sustained  in  his  new  book  on  Methods  and  Aids  in  Geography. 
It  seems  to  me  admirably  adapted  to  the  needs  of  teachers  and  full  or 
suggestions,  plans  and  devices  which  an  energetic  and  courageous  teacher 
can  use.  No  other  will  have  any  use  for  the  work.  I  take  pleasure 
in  calling  the  attention  of  teachers  to  so  wide-awake  and  helpful  a, 
manual." 

The  NEW  ENGLAND  JOURNAL  OF  EDUCATION  says : 

"  It  is  a  book  not  for  theorists,  but  for  instructors,  not  for  scholars  in 
the  classroom,  but  for  teachers,  and  it  brings  to  them  the  ripened  fruit  of 
years  of  research  and  teaching.  No  book  has  appeared  this  season  more 
indispensable  to  every  teacher's  desk  than  this  work,  at  once  complete, 
practical,  suggestive,  reliable,  furnishing  teachers  hundreds  of  thoughts  and 
aids  which  they  can  easily  adopt  without  being  obliged  to  adapt  them 
specially.  They  have  the  merit  of  fitting  like  custom-made  goods." 

SoW  by  all  Booksellers  and  sent  by  mail  on  receipt  of  price  by 

LEE  AND  SHEPARD  Publishers  Boston 


QTORIE8  HMERICAN    v 
O^oF^H  v  HISTORY 

Three  Books,    Cloth,  Illustrated.    Price  for  each  book,  50  cents.    Boards, 
30  cents  net.    By  mail,  35  cents 

FIRST  SERIES 

STORIES  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY.    By  N.  S.  DODGE. 

As  a  reading-book  for  the  younger  classes  in  public  and  'private  schools  (by 

many  of  which  it  has  been  adopted),  it  will  be  found  of  great  value. 

"  Nobody  knows  better  than  the  author  how  to  make  a  good  story  out 
of  even  the  driest  matters  of  fact.  .  .  .  Here  are  twenty-two  of  such 
stories ;  and  they  are  chosen  with  a  degree  of  skill  which  of  itself  would 
indicate  its  author's  fitness  for  the  task,  even  if  we  had  no  other  evidence 
of  that  fitness.  There  is  no  better,  purer,  more  interesting,  or  more  instruc- 
tive book  for  boys."  — New  York  Hearth  and  Home. 

SECOND   SERIES 

NOBLE  DEEDS  OF  OUR  FATHERS.  As  told  by  Soldiers 
of  the  Revolution  gathered  around  the  Old  Bell  of  Independence. 
Revised  and  adapted  from  HENRY  C.  WATSON. 

"  Every  phase  of  the  struggle  is  presented,  and  the  moral  and  reli- 
gions character  of  our  forefathers,  even  when  engaged  in  deadly  conflict, 
»s  depicted  with  great  clearness.  The  young  reader- — indeed,  older  readers 
will  like  the  stories  —  will  be  deeply  interested  in  the  story  of  Lafayette's 
return  to  this  country,  of  reminiscences  of  Washington,  of  the  night  before 
the  battle  of  Brandywine,  of  the  first  prayer  in  Congress,  of  the  patriotic 
women  of  that  day,  stories  of  adventure  regarding  Gen.  Wayne,  the  traitor 
Arnold,  the  massacre  of  Wyoming,  the  capture  of  Gen.  Prescott,  and  in 
other  narratives  equally  interesting  and  important."  —  Norwich  Bulletin. 

THIRD   SERIES 
THE  BOSTON  TEA  PARTY,  and  other  Stories  of 

the    Revolution.      Relating    many   Daring   Deeds  of    the   Old 
Heroes.    By  HENRY  C.  WATSON. 

"The  tales  are  full  of  interesting  material,  they  are  told  in  a  very 
graphic  manner,  and  give  many  incidents  of  personal  daring  and  descrip- 
tions of  famous  men  and  places.  General  Putnam's  escape,  the  fight  at 
Concord,  the  patriotism  of  Mr.  Borden,  tho  battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  the 
battle  of  Oriskany,  the  mutiny  at  Morristown,  and  the  exploits  of  Peter 
Francisco  are  among  the  subjects.  Books  such  as  this  have  a  practical 
value  and  an  undeniable  charm.  History  will  never  be  dull  so  long  as  it 
is  represented  with  so  much  brightness  and  color."  —  Philadelphia  Record. 

STORIES  OF  THE  CIVIL  WAR.  By  ALBERT  M.  BLAIS- 
DELL,  A.M.,  author  of  "  First  Steps  with  American  and  British 
Authors,"  "  Readings  from  the  Waverley  Novels,"  "  Blaisdell's  Physi- 
ologies," etc.  Illustrated.  Library  Edition,  Cloth,  Ji.oo.  School 
Edition,  Boards,  30  cents,  net;  by  mail,  35  cents.  . 

"An  exceedingly  interesting  collection  of  true  stories  of  thrilling  events 
and  adventures  of  the  brave  men  who  fought  during  the  Civil  War.  The 
author  aims  to  present  recitals  of  graphic  interest  and  founded  on  fact ; 
to  preserve  those  written  by  eye-witnesses  or  participants  in  the  scenes 
described ;  and  especially  to  stimulate  a  greater  love  and  reverence  for 
our  beloved  land  and  its  institutions,  in  the  character  of  the  selections 
presented. 

LEE  AND  SHEPARD  Publishers  Boston 


ETHODS    .'. 

...  flND  A1DS 


GESTURES  AND  ATTITUDES 

An  Exposition  of  the  Delsarte  Theory  of  Expression.     By  EDW'D.  B.  WARMAN, 

A.M.,  author  of   "The  Voice,    How  to  train  It,  How  to  care  for  It,"  etc. 

With  over  150  full-page  illustrations  by  MAKION  MORGAN  REYNOLDS.  Quarto, 

cloth,  $3.00. 

When  a  man  who,  besides  a  thorough  knowledge  of  his  art,  possesses  natural 
ability  as  a  teacher,  writes  a  book  on  this  subject,  one  anticipates  not  only  a  thor- 
oughly reliable,  but  also  a  thoroughly  practical  work.  In  his  treatise  on  Gestures 
and  Attitudes,  Professor  Warman  has  not  disappointed  us,  and  just  as  far  as  such  . 
work  can  be  made  practical  he  has  made  this  one  so.  The  ideas  of  Delsarte  arc 
presented  in  words  which  all  may  understand.  It  is  explicit  and  comprehensible. 
No  one  can  read  this  book  or  study  its  one  hundred  and  fifty  graceful  and  graphic 
illustrations  without  perceiving  the  possibility  of  adding  strength  and  expression 
to  gestures  and  movements,  as  well  as  simplicity  and  ease. 

THE  SWEDISH  SYSTEM  OF  EDUCATIONAL  GYMNASTICS 
By  BARON  NILS  POSSE,  M.  G.  Graduate  of  the  Royal  Gymnastic  Central  Insti- 
tute of  Stockholm.  Formerly  instructor  in  the  Stockholm  Gymnastic  and 
Fencing  Club.  Quarto,  264  illustrations.  Second  Edition,  Revised,  $2.00. 
The  Swedish  System  while  including  exercises  on  apparatus,  differs  from  other 
systems  by  its  independence  of  apparatus,  its  movements  being  applicable  to 
whatever  may  be  at  hand,  and  its  free  standing  exercises  are  such  as  no  appara- 
tus can  take  the  place  of.  Cheapness,  compactness,  adaptation  to  a  great  variety 
of  movements,  and  to  the  use  of  many  persons  at  the  same  time,  are  the  advantages 
of  the  Swedish  apparatus.  Baron  Posse's  treatise,  which  is  the  only  comprehen- 
sive handbook  of  Swedish  Gymnastics  in  the  English  language,  has  241  illustra- 
tions. Chapters  on  physiological  effects  of  exercise,  and  the  muscular  activities 
in  the  bodily  movements,  add  to  the  value  of  the  work,  which  is  so  arranged  as  to 
meet  the  wants  of  professional  teachers  familiar  with  other  forms  of  gymnastics. 
and  the  general  public.  —  ALEXANDER  YOUNG,  in  The  Critic. 

THE  VOICE 

How  to  train  It,  How  to  care  for  it.  By  E.  B.  WARMAN,  A.  M.  With  full-page 
illustrations  by  MARION  MORGAN  REYNOLDS.  Quarto,  cloth,  $2.00. 
The  book  is  intended  for  ministers,  lecturers,  readers,  actors,  singers,  teachers, 
and  public  speakers,  and  the  special  conditions  applicable  to  each  class  are 
pointed  out  in  connection  with  the  general  subject.  The  use  and  abuse  of  the 
vocal  organs  is  considered,  and  their  legitimate  functions  emphasized  as  illus- 
trated by  their  anatomy,  hygiene,  and  physiology.  The  breathing  and  vocal  exer- 
cises for  the  culture  and  development  of  the  human  voice  are  made  clear  by 
diagrams  as  well  as  descriptions,  and  the  fruits  of  the  author's  long  experience 
as  a  teacher  are  embodied  in  this  eminently  practical  treatise.  —  Critic. 

AN   HOUR  WITH   DELSARTE 

A  Study  of  Expression,  by  ANNA  MORGAN  of  the  Chicago  Conservatory.     Illus- 

trated by  ROSA   MUELLER  SPRAGUE  and  MARION  REYNOLDS  with  full-page 

figure  illustrations.     Quarto,  cloth,  $2.00. 

This  beautiful  quarto  volume  presents  the  ideas  of  Delsarte  in  words  which  all 
may  understand.  It  is  explicit  and  comprehensible.  No  one  can  read  this  book 
or  study  its  twenty-two  graceful  and  graphic  illustrations  without  perceiving  the 
possibility  of  adding  strength  and  expression  to  gestures  and  movements  as  well 
as  simplicity  and  ease.  Mr.  Turveydrop  went  through  life  with  universal  approval, 
simply  by  his  admirable  "deportment."  Every  young  person  may  profitably 
take  a  hint  from  his  success,  and  this  book  will  be  found  invaluable  as  an 
instructor.  —  Woman's  Journal,  Boston. 


Sold  by  all  booksellers,   and  sent  by  mail,  postpaid,  on  receipt  of  price 

LEE  AND  SHEPARD  Publishers  Boston 


THE  YOUNG  FOLK'S  SERIES 

This  series  consists  of  good  supplementary  reading  by  well-known 
authors ;  well  printed  on  calendered  paper  and  furnished  at  a  low 
price.  Additions  will  be  constantly  made  to  the  list. 


PAPER,  PRICE,  15  CENTS  NET,  EACH  NUMBER. 


Thomas  Wentworth  Higginson. 

1.  The  Legends  of  the  Northmen. 
Columbus  and  his  Companions. 

2.  Cabot  and  Verazzano. 

Strange  Voyage  of  Caberza  De  Vaca. 

3.  French  in  Canada. 
Adventures  of  De  Soto. 

4.  French  in  Florida. 

Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert. 

5.  The  Lost  Colonies  of  Virginia. 
Unsuccessful  New  England  Settlements. 

8.  Captain  John  Smith. 
Champlain  on  the  War  Path. 

7.  Henry  Hudson  and  the  New  Netherlands. 

g.  The  Pilgrims  at  Plymouth. 
Massachusetts  Bay  Colony. 

Louisa  Parsons  Hopkins. 

9.  Parables  of  Nature  and  Life ;  or,  Science  applied  to 

Character. 

Mrs.  Perry. 

JO,  Bible  Stories.     Arranged   for   reading  in   all   schools. 

Louisa  Parsons  Hopkins. 

11.  Observation  Lessons  in  Primary  Schools. 

12.  Plant  and  Animal  Life. 

13.  Physical    Phenomena    of    Nature    and   the    Human 

Body. 

14.  Physical  Exercise  and  Manual  Training. 
Sent  by  mail  postpaid  on  receipt  of  price. 


LEE  AND  SHEPAED  Publishers  Boston 


J 


ANE  ANDREWS'S  BOOKS  t 


THE  STORIES  MOTHER  NATURE  TOLD  HER 
CHILDREN. 

Illustrated.    Library  Edition,  $1.00.    School  Edition,  50  cts.  net;  by  mail,  55 


ONLY  A  YEAR,  AND  WHAT  IT  BROUGHT. 

A  Book  for  Girls.     Cloth,  $1 .00. 


TEN  BOYS  WHO  LIVED  ON  THE  ROAD  FROM  LONG 
AGO  TO  NOW. 

With  Twenty  Illustrations.    Library  Edition,  #7.0Q.    School  Edition, 
SO  cents,  net.    By  mail,  55  cents. 

INTRODUCING  THE    STORMES  OP 

THE  ARYAN  BOY,  THE  PERSIAN  BOY,  THE  GKtEK  BOY,  THE  ROMAN 

BOY,  THE  SAXON  BOY.  THE  PAGE,  THE  ENGLISH  LAI).  THE 

PURITAN  BOY,  THE  VANKKK  BOY,  THE  BOV  OF  1886. 

The  poet  JOHN  G.  WHITTIER  says  of  it:  — 

"  I  have  been  reading  the  new  book  by  Jane  Andrews,  '  Ten  Boys  who  Lived 
on  the  Road  from  Long  Ago  to  Now,"  which  you.  have  just  published,  and  can- 
not forbear  saying  that  in  all  my  acquaintance  with  juvenile  literature  I  know  of 
nothing  in  many  respects  equal  to  this  remarkable  book,  which  contains  in  its 
small  compass  the  concentrated  knowledge  of  vast  libraries.  It  is  the  admirably 
told  story  of  past  centuries  of  the  world's  progress,  and  the  amount  of  study  and 
labor  required  in  its  preparation  seems  almost  appalling  to  contemplate.  One  in 
struck  with  the  peculiar  excellence  of  its  style,  —  clear,  easy,  graceful,  and  pic- 
turesque,  —  which  a  child  cannot  fail  to  comprehend,  and  in  which  'children  of  a 
larger  growth '  will  find  an  irresistible  charm.  That  it  will  prove  a  favorite  with 
old  anu  young,  I  have  no  doubt.  It  seems  to  me  that  nothing  could  be  more  en- 
joyable to  the  boy  of  our  period  than  the  story  of  how  the  boys  of  all  ages  lived 
And  acted." 


THE   SEVEN   LITTLE  SISTERS 

WHO  LIVE  ON  THE  ROUND    BALL    THAT  FLOATS   IN   THE  AIR. 

Library  Edition,  fl.OO.    School  Edition,  SO  cents,  net.    By  mail,  55  cents. 

The  Seven  Little  Sisters  are  typical  of  seven  races;  and  the  author's 
idea  is  to  portray  how  these  "  little  women  "  live  in  diverse  parts  of 
the  world,  how  the  products  of  one  country  are  brought  to  another, 
their  manners,  customs,  etc.  The  stories  are  charmingly  told. 


Tie  Seven  Little  Sisters  Prove  Tieir  Sisterhood. 

Library  Edition,  $1.00.    School  Edition,  60  cents,  net.    By  mail,  56  cents. 

This  may  be  considered  a  sequel  to  The  Seven  Little  Sisters,  in 
which  the  nationalities  are  again  taken  up,  and  the  peculiarities  of 
each,  in  relation  to  its  childhood,  are  naturally  and  pleasingly  given. 


GEOGRAPHICAL    PLAYS. 

Comprising  United  States,   Asia,  Africa,  and  South  America, 

Australia  and  the  Islands,  the  Commerce  of  the  World. 

Cloth,  $1.00 ;  or  in  Paper  Covers,  16  cents  each.    Six  Parts. 


Sold  by  all  booksellers,  and  sent  by  mail,  postpaid,  on  receipt  of  price. 

LEE    AND    SHEFARD.    Publishers,    Boston. 


BLAISDELL'S  REVISED  SERIES  OF  PHYSIOLOGIES 

BY 

DR.   ALBERT  F.   BLAISDELL 

Author  of  "  First  Steps  with  American  and  British  Authors,"  "  Stories  of  the 

Civil  War,"  "  Study  of  the  English  Classics,"  "  Readings  from  the 

Waverley  Novels,"  "  Stories  from  English  History,"  etc. 


COMPRISING 

Physiology  for  Little  Folks 

(Revised  Edition  of"  Child's  Book  of  Health") 
Introduction  Price,  30  cents,  net 

Physiology  for  Boys  and  Girls 

(Revised  Edition  of"  How  to  Keep  Well") 
Introduction  Price,  42  cents,  net 

Young  Folks'  Physiology 

(Revised  Edition  of  "  Our  Bodies  ") 
Introduction  Price,  60  cents,  net 

The  leading  purpose  of  the  books  of  this  series  is  to  treat  of  the  care  and  preser- 
vation of  the  health.  The  latest  facts  are  given;  and  in  each  division  the  effects  of 
alcoholic  drinks,  stimulants,  and  narcotics  on  the  human  system  are  shown  with 
force,  accuracy,  and  candor.  The  author,  who  is  a  successful  practising  physician, 
and  largely  engaged  in  educational  matters,  has  accomplished  the  difficult  task  of 
adapting  the  different  books  of  the  series  to  the  capacity  and  taste  of  the  different 
grades  of  pupils  for  whom  th£y  are  designed,  the  language  employed  being  remark- 
ably adapted  to  each  grade.  Many  experiments  with  and  without  apparatus  are 
suggested  and  explained  in  a  manner  that, will  be  invaluable  to  the  pupils.  The 
health  notes,  in  the  form  of  blackboard  exercises,  in  the  "  Physiology  for  Little 
Kolks,"  in  physical  exercises,  in  "  Young  Folks'  Physiology,"  and  in  hundreds  of 
suggestions  throughout  the  volumes,  form  especially  good  features  of  the  series. 

As  suggested  by  the  general  title  the  volumes  have  been  thoroughly  revised,  and 
are  printed  from  entirely  new  plates,  with  many  new  illustrations.  These  new 
editions  have  been  prepared  under  the  advice  and  supervision  of  Mrs.  MARY  H. 
HUNT,  National  and  International  Superintendent  of  the  Scientific  Department  of 
the  Women's  Christian  Temperance  Union.  Blaisdell's  Physiologies  are  in  use  in 
Boston,  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Providence,  Springfield,  Augusta,  Me.,  and 
hundreds  of  cities  and  towns  throughout  the  country. 


Sample  copies  for  examination  sent  free  on  receipt  of  above  prices 
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TEACHERS'  AIDS. 

THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PSYCHOLOGY 

By  GABRIEL  COMPAYRE.     Translated  by  William  H.  Payne,  Ph.D.,  LL.D., 
Chancellor  of  the  University  of  Nashville.     Price,  $1.00,  net.     By  mail,  $1.10. 
METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION  AND  ORGANIZATION   IN  THE 
GERMAN  SCHOOLS 

By  JOHN  T.  PRINCE,    Mass.    State  Board  of  Education.     Cloth,   $1.00,  net. 
Mailing  price,  $1.15. 
METHODS  AND,AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

For  the  use  of  Teachers  and  Normal  Schools.     By  CHARLES  F.  KING,  Master 
Dearborn  School,  Boston.     Cloth.     Illustrated.     $1.20,  net.     By  mail,  £  1.33. 
REMINISCENCES  OF  FRIEDRICH  FROEBEL 

By  BARONESS   B.   VON    MARENHOLZ-BULOW.     Translated   by  Mrs.   Horace 
Mann.     With  a  sketch  of- the  life  of  Froebel  by  Emily  Shirreff.     Cloth.  $1.50, 
MOTHER-PLAY  AND  NURSERY  SONGS 

By  FRIEDRICH  FROEBEL.     Translated  from  the  German.     Edited  by  Elizabeth 
P.  Peabody.     Quarto.     Boards,  $1.50,  net.     By  mail,  51.75. 

THE  SPIRIT  OF  THE  NEW  EDUCATION 

By  LOUISA  PARSONS  HOPKINS,  supervisor  of  Boston  Public  Schools.  Clo.^i.so. 
HOW  SHALL  MY  CHILD  BE  TAUGHT.? 

Practical  Pedagogy  or  the  Science  of  Teaching.     By  Mrs.  LOUISA  PARSONS 
HOPKINS,  supervisor  in  Boston  Public  Schools.     Cloth,  £1.00,  net. 
AN  HOUR  WITH  DELSARTE 

A   Study  of   Expression.     By  ANNA  MORGAN  of  the  Chicago  Conservatory. 
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